Esmaeil Radpour

The Upaniṣads, as one of the trilogy of principal Vedāntic texts, the oldest and the most fundamental of them, have exposed a more or less detailed discussion on dreaming, taking it whether as the factual object of their discourse or as a symbol. However, there has been a debate between different schools of Vedāntic philosophy about oneirology, science of dreams and their interpretation, discussion of nature of the dream state, its reality and unreality. This paper, after a short study of oneirology in the Vedas and Upaniṣads, examines argumentations of four great philosophers of different Vedāntic schools, Gauḍapāda, Śaṅkara, Rāmānuja, and Madhva, pertaining to dreams.

Various esoteric traditions apply different modes of expression for the same metaphysical truths. We may name the two most known esoteric languages as ecstatic and scholastic. Early Daoist use of reverse symbolism as for metaphysical truths and its critical way of viewing formalist understanding of traditional teachings, common virtues and popular beliefs show that it applies an ecstatic language, which, being called shaṭḥ in Sufi terminology, has a detailed literature and technical description in Sufism. This article tries, after a short survey of the concept of shaṭḥ in Sufism, to consider some early Daoist teachings such as wuwei, disparagement of moralism, and disparagement of rationality from an Eastern Sufi point of view regarding shaṭḥ to achieve a clearer insight into the gnostic aspects of the tradition, and to avoid certain possible misunderstanding of the teachings.

The Later Daoist idea of multiple vertical states of intelligence is well known. The idea can also be found in the early Daoist sources, evidently not as a whole doctrine but as fragmented implications. This paper wishes to study the early Daoist references to multiple states of the intelligence and their functions in relation to each other. Explicitness of the texts in differentiating two major levels of intelligence leaves no room for doubt about existence of such ideas in early Daoism. The supra-individual states of intelligence surpass the limits of the individual states to attain an unmediated knowledge. Determination of the Daoist intelligential outlook as intellectual helps us to avoid misrepresentation of the tradition as a rationalist or sensationalist one.