Luciano Floridi

This article examines the nature of reasoning in current, mainstream Large Language Models (LLMs) that operate within the token-completion paradigm. We explore their stochastic foundations and phenomenological resemblance to human abductive reasoning. We argue that such LLMs generate text based on learned associations rather than performing abductive inferences. When their output exhibits an apparent abductive quality-often reinforced by interface design-this effect is due to the model's training on human-generated texts that encode reasoning structures. We use some examples to illustrate how LLMs produce plausible hypotheses, simulate commonsense reasoning, and provide explanatory answers without grounding them directly in truth, semantics, verification, or understanding, and without any abductive reasoning. This duality, centred on the stochastic core of the models and the abductive appearance of the applications, has important implications for the evaluation and use of LLMs. They can help generate hypotheses and support human reasoning, but their outputs must be critically examined because they cannot discern truth or verify explanations. In the conclusion, we address five objections to our assertions, some limitations of our analysis, and provide a general assessment.

_Philosophy and Computing_ explores each of the following areas of technology: the digital revolution; the computer; the Internet and the Web; CD-ROMs and Mulitmedia; databases, textbases, and hypertexts; Artificial Intelligence; the future of computing. Luciano Floridi shows us how the relationship between philosophy and computing provokes a wide range of philosophical questions: is there a philosophy of information? What can be achieved by a classic computer? How can we define complexity? What are the limits of quantam computers? Is the Internet an intellectual space or a polluted environment? What is the paradox in the Strong Artificial Intlligence program? _Philosophy and Computing_ is essential reading for anyone wishing to fully understand both the development and history of information and communication technology as well as the philosophical issues it ultimately raises.

This article advances three interconnected theses concerning the philosophical, ethical, and socio-political implications of the digital and analogue relationship. The first thesis argues that digital representations (models) increasingly mediate our cognitive and practical engagement with reality (systems), resulting in epistemic abstraction and potential oversights (“the eclipse of the analogue”). Through examples from healthcare, engineering, and finance, the article illustrates how uncritical dependence on models can obscure crucial aspects of analogue realities, leading to significant errors and adverse consequences. The second thesis contends that, at the same time and only apparently paradoxically, analogue factors—such as rare earth minerals, energy infrastructures, and physical hardware—are becoming central to the control and governance of digital technologies (“the hardware turn”). Despite digitalisation’s rhetoric of immateriality and virtuality, power increasingly resides with those who control the analogue conditions of possibility underpinning the digital domain. Consequently, the third thesis proposes a normative framework for addressing this twofold challenge. The article argues for the necessity of three complementary strategies: enhanced education (Paideia) to foster critical awareness of digital mediation; robust legislation (Nomos) to ensure ethical governance and mitigate systemic risks; and a redefined conception of digital sovereignty capable of democratically controlling the interconnected digital–analogue landscape and implement the appropriate Paideia and the right Nomos. In the end, Heidegger’s metaphysical critique of technology is contrasted with Weil’s ethically oriented approach, advocating a constructive and relational philosophy of technology to counter the detrimental impacts of the eclipse of the analogue and the hardware turn.

Debates on AI governance often focus on regulating risks. This article shifts perspective to examine how AI can augment democratic processes, presenting a critical analysis of the Italian Chamber of Deputies’ pioneering AI initiative. We detail the 2024 project that produced three prototype systems—NORMA (legislative analysis), MSE (drafting assistance), and DepuChat (citizen engagement)—which embed principles of transparency, human oversight, and privacy-by-design. We introduce the project’s third way development model, a public-academic partnership that contrasts with full in-house or commercial approaches. Using this initiative as a critical case study, we move beyond merely applying the concept of “augmented democracy”. We argue that this real-world implementation reveals key tensions between the goals of efficiency and the preservation of deliberative friction essential to democratic practice. The analysis highlights risks, including staff deskilling and the digitalisation of inequalities, and situates the Italian approach in an international context. We conclude by offering a theoretical refinement of augmented democracy, informed by the practical lessons of its implementation in a complex legislative environment.

Recommender Systems (RS) on digital platforms increasingly influence user behavior, raising ethical concerns, privacy risks, harmful content promotion, and diminished user autonomy. This article examines RS within the framework of regulations and lawsuits in the United States and advocates for legislation that can withstand constitutional scrutiny under First Amendment protections. We propose (re)framing RS-curated content as commercial speech, which is subject to lessened free speech protections. This approach provides a practical path for future legislation that would allow for effective oversight of RS, particularly in areas of substantial public interest like child safety, national security, and misinformation.

This article introduces a systematic methodology, called _red reading_, for critical textual analysis that adapts red teaming techniques from computer science and artificial intelligence (AI) into a comprehensive diagnostic protocol, supported by Large Language Models (LLMs), to analyse written documents. As the methodological counterpart of _distant writing_, which transforms text production through AI-assisted design, _red reading_ expands human analytical capabilities and critical reading by embedding adversarial analysis in a constructive framework powered by LLMs. The approach employs a rigorously tested, diagnostic protocol that stress-tests texts across structural, rhetorical, logical, and stylistic dimensions, while strengthening interpretive understanding. The methodology shows how LLM-supported, textual red teaming can provide a rigorous, critical _and_ constructive approach to textual analysis with broad applications across disciplines. We exemplify the method by developing a fifteen-phase diagnostic prompt for red reading. In the Appendix, we apply this protocol to a case study analysing Turing’s seminal article, _Computing Machinery and Intelligence_. We finally discuss the challenges of using red reading and provide some suggestions for future research. In particular, we emphasise the importance of calibration methods for LLMs’ critical analysis, along with evidence-based strategies for seamlessly integrating red reading into real-world workflows.

Artificial intelligence’s impact on healthcare is undeniable. What is less clear is whether it will be ethically justifiable. Just as we know that AI can be used to diagnose disease, predict risk, develop personalized treatment plans, monitor patients remotely, or automate triage, we also know that it can pose significant threats to patient safety and the reliability (or trustworthiness) of the healthcare sector as a whole. These ethical risks arise from (a) flaws in the evidence base of healthcare AI (epistemic concerns); (b) the potential of AI to transform fundamentally the meaning of health, the nature of healthcare, and the practice of medicine (normative concerns); and (c) the “black box” nature of the AI development pipeline, which undermines the effectiveness of existing accountability mechanisms (traceability concerns). In this chapter, we systematically map (a)–(c) to six different levels of abstraction: individual, interpersonal, group, institutional, sectoral, and societal. The aim is to help policymakers, regulators, and other high-level stakeholders delineate the scope of regulation and other “softer” governing measures for AI in healthcare. We hope that by doing so, we may enable global healthcare systems to capitalize safely and reliably on the many benefits of healthcare AI.

_Presenting an array of innovative concepts to revolutionize politics in our digital world, this book is written by one of the most authoritative voices of contemporary philosophy_ _The Green and the Blue_ explores the opportunities presented by the digital age for combining _green_ environmental policies with _blue_ digital solutions to strengthen democracy, reform capitalism, and work toward a sustainable and equitable future. With an engaging and readable style, world-renowned philosopher Luciano Floridi lays out a timely and convincing case for embracing responsible practices to ensure a sustainable environment, a better democracy, and an equitable information society. Drawing from his expertise in digital ethics and the philosophy of technology, Floridi offers fresh perspectives, innovative ideas, and bold strategies for improving political systems that emphasize the importance of cooperation, ethics, and long-term planning. Throughout the text, the author advocates for a political and economic framework of care that focuses on the quality of relations and processes rather than consumption and things. A groundbreaking call to action for individuals, policymakers, and technologists, _The Green and the Blue: Naive Ideas to Improve Politics in the Digital Age:_ Provides a comprehensive, interdisciplinary, and well-rounded exploration of how to improve the present by designing good policies for the future Features insightful analysis by the founder of the philosophy of information and one of the key interpreters of the digital revolution Explains complex concepts to allow easy understanding and application of the ideas presented Includes compelling thought experiments that challenge traditional notions of capitalism and politics Encourages readers to think critically about the present and future of politics Offering a new way of thinking about democracy, the environment, and technology, _The Green and the Blue: Naive Ideas to Improve Politics in the Digital Age_ is a must-read for undergraduate and graduate students, practitioners, and general readers who are seeking positive and sustainable change in the world of politics.

_This _Guide_ provides an ambitious state-of-the-art survey of the fundamental themes, problems, arguments and theories constituting the philosophy of computing._ A complete guide to the philosophy of computing and information. Comprises 26 newly-written chapters by leading international experts. Provides a complete, critical introduction to the field. Each chapter combines careful scholarship with an engaging writing style. Includes an exhaustive glossary of technical terms. Ideal as a course text, but also of interest to researchers and general readers.

A compilation of cutting-edge, comprehensive insights into digital ethics from leading scholars As digital technologies shape every aspect of today's society, ethical considerations have never been more pressing. In A Companion to Digital Ethics, editors Luciano Floridi and Mariarosaria Taddeo bring together leading experts to analyse key ethical challenges posed by artificial intelligence, privacy, cybersecurity, cyberwarfare, sustainability, digital consent, and many other topics. With a multidisciplinary approach, this authoritative volume introduces all the relevant topics in digital ethics clearly and accessibly, integrating insights from philosophy, law, computer science, and the social sciences. Unlike other collections that focus on specialised research or introductory overviews, this Companion strikes a critical balance—offering a systematic, comprehensive, simple yet rigorous examination of digital ethics that is both conceptually rich and practically relevant. Each chapter can be read as part of the whole or independently. Throughout the book, the contributing authors equip the reader with diverse perspectives for navigating ethical dilemmas in the evolving digital landscape, with an essential list of references and further readings. Integrating real-world examples and case studies throughout, A Companion to Digital Ethics: Explores the ethical value and implications of digital technologies and their applications Offers clear and precise analysis of both current and potential ethical challenges Includes discussions of ethical issues in contexts of technology governance and digital law Helps professionals and policymakers implement ethical principles in AI and digital technologies Contains authoritative and cutting-edge chapters, edited by two leading experts in digital ethics Whether used in academic courses or professional discussions on responsible digital innovation, A Companion to Digital Ethics is an essential guide to understanding and addressing the ethical questions of the digital age. It is a must-have resource for undergraduate and postgraduate students in any academic discipline, as well as policymakers and practitioners seeking to implement ethical frameworks for emerging technologies.

This is the first of two volumes of the proceedings from the 30th International Wittgenstein Symposium in Kirchberg, August 2007. In addition to several new contributions to Wittgenstein research, this volume contains articles with a special focus on digital Wittgenstein research and Wittgenstein's role for the understanding of the digital turn, as well as discussions - not necessarily from a Wittgensteinian perspective - about issues in the philosophy of information, including computational ontologies.

Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) offer significant therapeutic opportunities for a variety of neurophysiological and neuropsychiatric disorders and may perhaps one day lead to augmenting the cognition and decision-making of the healthy brain. However, existing regulatory frameworks designed for implantable medical devices (IMDs) are inadequate to address the unique ethical, legal, and social risks associated with next-generation networked brain-computer interfaces (BCIs). In this article, we make nine recommendations to support developers in the design of BCIs and nine recommendations to support policymakers in the application of BCIs, drawing insights from the regulatory history of IMDs and principles from AI ethics. We begin by outlining the historical development of IMDs and the regulatory milestones that have shaped their oversight. Next, we summarize similarities between IMDs and emerging implantable BCIs, identifying existing provisions for their regulation. We then use two case studies of emerging cutting-edge BCIs-the HALO (Hardware Architecture for LOw-power BCIs) and SCALO (SCalable Architecture for LOw-power BCIs) computer systems-to highlight distinctive features in the design and application of nextgeneration BCIs arising from contemporary chip architectures, which necessitate reevaluating regulatory approaches. We identify critical ethical considerations for these BCIs, including unique conceptions of autonomy, identity, and mental privacy. Based on these insights, we suggest potential avenues for the ethical regulation of BCIs, emphasizing the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration and proactive mitigation of potential harms. The goal is to support the responsible design and application of new BCIs, ensuring their safe and ethical integration into medical practice.

The article introduces the concept of “semantic pareidolia” - our tendency to attribute consciousness, intelligence, and emotions to AI systems that lack these qualities. It examines how this psychological phenomenon leads us to perceive meaning and intentionality in statistical pattern-matching systems, similar to seeing faces in clouds. It analyses the converging forces intensifying this tendency: increasing digital immersion, profit-driven corporate interests, social isolation, and AI advancement. The article warns of progression from harmless anthropomorphism to problematic AI idolatry, and calls for responsible design practices that help users maintain critical distinctions between simulation and genuine consciousness. It is the English translation and adaptation of an article originally published in Italian in Harvard Business Review Italia, June 2025.

This article introduces a systematic methodology, called red reading, for critical textual analysis that adapts red teaming techniques from computer science and artificial intelligence (AI) into a comprehensive diagnostic protocol, supported by Large Language Models (LLMs), to analyse written documents. As the methodological counterpart of distant writing, which transforms text production through AI-assisted design, red reading expands human analytical capabilities and critical reading by embedding adversarial analysis in a constructive framework powered by LLMs. The approach employs a rigorously tested, diagnostic protocol that stresstests texts across structural, rhetorical, logical, and stylistic dimensions, while strengthening interpretive understanding. The methodology shows how LLM-supported, textual red teaming can provide a rigorous, critical and constructive approach to textual analysis with broad applications across disciplines. We exemplify the method by developing a fifteen-phase diagnostic prompt for red reading. In the Appendix, we apply this protocol to a case study analysing Turing's seminal article, Computing Machinery and Intelligence. We finally discuss the challenges of using red reading and provide some suggestions for future research. In particular, we emphasise the importance of calibration methods for LLMs' critical analysis, along with evidence-based strategies for seamlessly integrating red reading into real-world workflows.

The proliferation of generative AI systems has created new challenges for the Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) community, particularly regarding how traditional copyleft principles should apply when open source code is used to train AI models. This article introduces the Contextual Copyleft AI (CCAI) license, a novel licensing mechanism that extends copyleft requirements from training data to the resulting generative AI models. The CCAI license offers significant advantages, including enhanced developer control, incentivization of open source AI development, and mitigation of openwashing practices. This is demonstrated through a structured three-part evaluation framework that examines (1) legal feasibility under current copyright law, (2) policy justification comparing traditional software and AI contexts, and (3) synthesis of cross-contextual benefits and risks. However, the increased risk profile of open source AI, particularly the potential for direct misuse, necessitates complementary regulatory approaches to achieve an appropriate risk-benefit balance. The paper concludes that when implemented within a robust regulatory environment focused on responsible AI usage, the CCAI license provides a viable mechanism for preserving and adapting core FOSS principles to the evolving landscape of generative AI development.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) presents unprecedented opportunities to transform healthcare worldwide, from improving diagnostic accuracy to expanding access in underserved regions. Despite this potential and growing investment, a significant gap persists between AI’s theoretical promise and its realised benefits in healthcare settings. This article examines the complex barriers impeding AI benefits realization in global health contexts, including ethical uncertainties, data infrastructure limitations, evidence quality concerns, and regulatory ambiguities. We analyze current initiatives addressing these challenges and highlight how technological solutions alone cannot resolve fundamental healthcare inequities. Drawing on the interdisciplinary perspectives and insights presented at the Global Health in the Age of AI Symposium hosted by the Cini Foundation and Yale Digital Ethics Center, we propose five core infrastructure requirements necessary for ethical AI implementation: robust data exchange; epistemic certainty with staff autonomy; actively protected healthcare values; validated outcomes with meaningful accountability; and environmental sustainability. These requirements form the foundation for a systems approach that balances technological advancement with ethical imperatives, contextual adaptability, and global equity considerations. We conclude that the successful integration of AI into healthcare demands coordinated action across sectors and borders, with careful attention to avoiding technological colonialism and ensuring AI serves as a force for health equity rather than widening existing disparities.