Stephen Yablo

Essentialists hold that certain of a thing's properties are specially fundamental, antiessentialists that all of a thing's properties are on a par. As a result, essentialists can explain how, e.g., a statue and its clay are different, but not how they are the same, whereas antiessentialists can explain how they're the same but not how they're different. Ordinarily, though, we reckon them in one sense the same and in another different. ;To accomodate the ordinary view, essentialism and antiessentialism must be brought together. To this end, I identify a property as categorical if its possession in a world speaks to what goes on in that world alone; count essentialist particulars contingently identical in a world if they share their categorical properties there; and introduce antiessentialist, or concrete, particulars as entities for which contingent identity is all the identity there is. Concrete particulars emerge as limiting cases of the essentialist particulars with which they were formerly contrasted, and essentialism and antiessentialism are to that extent reconciled. ;With matters so complicated clarity is at a premium, so the scheme is formalized. Each Kripke model of quantified modal logic is supplemented with a set of properties, constrained so that essences drawn from the set specify what a thing must be like to be the thing it is. When one thing's essence includes another's, they are variants. Properties insensitive to the difference between variants are categorical, and contingent identity is sameness of categorical properties. If concrete things are things existing in one world only, then all their properties are on a par, and they're contingently identical iff properly identical. To show the tractability of reasoning about particulars thus understood, I give a sound and complete logic. ;Formalism isn't an end in itself, but the present formalism pays its way by bringing new clarity to traditional issues: I prove that indiscernibles are identical; give an analysis of kind properties; establish the relativity of cross-world identity between concrete things to kinds; forge new links between modality, time, and potentiality; and give an improved counterfactual account of causation

Kripke, argued like this: it seems possible that E; the appearance can't be explained away as really pertaining to a "presentation" of E; so, pending a different explanation, it is possible that E. Textbook Kripkeans see in the contrast between E and its presentation intimations of a quite general distinction between two sorts of meaning. E's secondary or a posteriori meaning is the set of all worlds w which E, as employed here, truly describes. Its primary or a priori meaning is the set of all w such that if w is actual, then E is true. "Conceivability error" occurs when a primary possibility is mistaken for a secondary one. Textbook Kripkeanism is rejected on the grounds that it makes meaning too modal and modality too much a matter of meaning.

Here is Frege in Foundations of Arithmetic, § 64:The judgment 'Line a is parallel to line b', in symbols: ab, can be taken as an identity. If we do this, we obtain the concept of direction, and say: 'The direction of line a is equal to the direction of line b.' Thus we replace the symbol by the more generic symbol =, through removing what is specific in the content of the former and dividing it between a and b. We carve up the content in a way different from the original way, and this yields us a new concept.Something important is going on in this passage. But at the same time it borders on incoherent. For Frege is saying at least the following:'dir(a ) = dir(b )' has the same content as 'ab'reflecting on that ..

Mental causes are threatened from two directions: from below, since they would appear to be screened off by lower-order, e.g., neural states; and from within, since they would also appear to be screened off by intrinsic, e.g., syntactical states. A principle needed to parry the first threat -causes should be proportional to their effects- appears to leave us open to the second; for why should unneeded extrinsic detail be any less offensive to proportionality than excess microstructure? I say that the second threat relies on a perversion of proportionality that would lay waste to all causal relations.