•  594
    Explicating objectual understanding: taking degrees seriously
    Journal for General Philosophy of Science / Zeitschrift für Allgemeine Wissenschaftstheorie 1 1-22. 2019.
    The paper argues that an account of understanding should take the form of a Carnapian explication and acknowledge that understanding comes in degrees. An explication of objectual understanding is defended, which helps to make sense of the cognitive achievements and goals of science. The explication combines a necessary condition with three evaluative dimensions: An epistemic agent understands a subject matter by means of a theory only if the agent commits herself sufficiently to the theory of th…Read more
  •  584
    The paper provides a systematic overview of recent debates in epistemology and philosophy of science on the nature of understanding. We explain why philosophers have turned their attention to understanding and discuss conditions for “explanatory” understanding of why something is the case and for “objectual” understanding of a whole subject matter. The most debated conditions for these types of understanding roughly resemble the three traditional conditions for knowledge: truth, justification an…Read more
  •  267
    Types of Understanding: Their Nature and Their Relation to Knowledge
    Conceptus: Zeitschrift Fur Philosophie 40 (98): 67-88. 2014.
    What does it mean to understand something? I approach this question by comparing understanding with knowledge. Like knowledge, understanding comes, at least prima facia, in three varieties: propositional, interrogative and objectual. I argue that explanatory understanding (this being the most important form of interrogative understanding) and objectual understanding are not reducible to one another and are neither identical with, nor even a form of, the corresponding type of knowledge (nor any o…Read more
  •  253
    Art and Understanding. In Defence of Aesthetic Cognitivism
    In Marc Greenlee, Rainer Hammwöhner, Bernd Köber, Christoph Wagner & Christian Wolff (eds.), Bilder sehen. Perspektiven der Bildwissenschaft, Schnell + Steiner. pp. 41-67. 2013.
    Aesthetic cognitivism is best thought of as a conjunction of an epistemic and an aesthetic claim. The epistemic thesis is that artworks have cognitive functions, the aesthetic thesis that cognitive functions of artworks partly determine their artistic value. In this article, my first aim is to defend the epistemic thesis of aesthetic cognitivism. Since it seems undeniable that artworks have cognitive functions, yet less clear whether they have them as artworks, I will focus on cognitive function…Read more
  •  215
    Explaining Understanding: New Perspectives From Epistemology and Philosophy of Science (edited book)
    with Stephen Robert Grimm and Sabine Ammon
    Routledge. 2016.
    What does it mean to understand something? What types of understanding can be distinguished? Is understanding always provided by explanations? And how is it related to knowledge? Such questions have attracted considerable interest in epistemology recently. These discussions, however, have not yet engaged insights about explanations and theories developed in philosophy of science. Conversely, philosophers of science have debated the nature of explanations and theories, while dismissing understand…Read more
  •  187
    Identities of Artefacts
    with Georg Brun
    Theoria 78 (1): 47-74. 2011.
    In non-philosophical discourse, “identity” is often used when the specific character of artefacts is described or evaluated. We argue that this usage of “identity” can be explicated as referring to the symbol properties of artefacts as they are conceptualized in the symbol theory of Goodman and Elgin. This explication is backed by an analysis of various uses of “identity”. The explicandum clearly differs from the concepts of numerical identity, qualitative identity and essence, but it has a rang…Read more
  •  178
    Reflective equilibrium and understanding
    with Georg Brun
    Synthese 198 (8): 7923-7947. 2020.
    Elgin has presented an extensive defence of reflective equilibrium embedded in an epistemology which focuses on objectual understanding rather than ordinary propositional knowledge. This paper has two goals: to suggest an account of reflective equilibrium which is sympathetic to Elgin’s but includes a range of further developments, and to analyse its role in an account of understanding. We first address the structure of reflective equilibrium as a target state and argue that reflective equilibri…Read more
  •  93
    Five Ways of (not) Defining Exemplification
    In Gerhard Ernst, Jakob Steinbrenner & Oliver R. Scholz (eds.), From Logic to Art: Themes from Nelson Goodman, Ontos. pp. 219-250. 2009.
    The notion of exemplification is essential for Goodman’s theory of symbols. But Goodman’s account of exemplification has been criticized as unclear and inadequate. He points out two conditions for an object x exemplifying a label y: (C1) y denotes x and (C2) x refers to y. While (C1) is uncontroversial, (C2) raises the question of how “refers to” should be interpreted. This problem is intertwined with three further questions that consequently should be discussed together with it. Are the two nec…Read more
  •  87
    Ambiguity in Architecture
    In G. Ernst, O. Scholz & J. Steinbrenner (eds.), Nelson Goodman: From Logic to Art, Ontos. pp. 293--319. 2009.
    Buildings are frequently described as ambiguous and, indeed, they often involve the ambivalence associated with ambiguous symbols. In this paper, I develop a theory of architectural ambiguity within the framework of a Goodmanian symbol theory. Based upon Israel Scheffler’s study of verbal and pictorial ambiguity, I present a theory of denotational ambiguity of buildings which distinguishes four types of ambiguity: elementary ambiguity, interpretation-ambiguity, multiple meaning and metaphor, whi…Read more
  •  86
    Understanding and its Relation to Knowledge
    In Christoph Jäger Winfrid Löffler (ed.), Epistemology: Contexts, Values, Disagreement. Papers of the 34th International Wittgenstein Symposium, Austrian Ludwig Wittgenstein Society. pp. 16-18. 2011.
    Is understanding the same as or at least a species of knowledge? This question has to be answered with respect to each of three types of understanding and of knowledge. I argue that understanding-why and objectual understanding are not reducible to one another and neither identical with nor a species of the corresponding or any other type of knowledge. My discussion reveals important characteristics of these two types of understanding and has consequences for propositional understanding.
  •  66
    Wissen, Verstehen und Weisheit
    In Martin Grajner & Guido Melchior (eds.), Handbuch Erkenntnistheorie, Metzler. pp. 110-115. 2019.
    Die Erkenntnistheorie wird meist als Theorie des Wissens charakterisiert. In jüngerer Zeit ist der alleinige Fokus auf Wissen kritisiert und sind weitere epistemische Güter diskutiert worden. Verstehen und Weisheit sind von besonderer Bedeutung. Erstens ist Verstehen ein hohes und Weisheit vielleicht das höchste epistemische Gut; beide scheinen epistemisch wertvoller zu sein als Wissen (Riggs 2003). Zudem ist unklar, ob der epistemische Wert von Wissen den Wert seiner Bestandteile (z.B. wahre, g…Read more
  •  62
    In der Architekturtheorie ist häufig von der Identität von Bauwerken oder Städten die Rede. Der Ausdruck „Identität“ bezieht sich dabei auf etwas, was man „spezifischen Charakter“ nennen könnte. Wir schlagen eine symboltheoretische Explikation dieses Identitätsbegriffs vor und zeigen, in welchem Sinn ein Bauwerk verschiedene, sich verändernde oder gar konfligierende Identitäten haben kann. Identitäten von Bauwerken werden oft als mehr oder weniger klar, positiv, angemessen oder stark bewertet. S…Read more
  •  58
    The Ethical Criticism of Architecture: In Defense of Moderate Moralism
    Architecture Philosophy 1 (2): 179-197. 2015.
    Abstract: The practice of architectural criticism is supercharged with ethical evaluations. But do they have any bearing on the architectural value of a building? And how are the ethical value of an architectural work and its aesthetic value related? I defend the following answers, which define a version of moderate moralism with respect to architecture: An architectural work will in some cases be (1) architecturally flawed (or meritorious) due to the fact that it has ethical flaws (or merits), …Read more
  •  57
    Architekturkritiker und -historiker verwenden eine Vielzahl von Ausdrücken, um anzugeben, was Bauwerke bedeuten. Es ist beispielsweise die Rede davon, dass sie etwas ausdrücken, repräsentieren, zitieren, manifestieren, darstellen oder aussagen; man kann von Gebäuden lesen, die mehrdeutig sind, als Metaphern fungieren oder auf etwas anspielen. In diesem Aufsatz frage ich, wie Bauwerke bedeuten können, um die Grundzüge einer Theorie der Bedeutungsweisen von Bauwerken und ihren Teilen vorzustellen,…Read more
  •  57
    Applying big data beyond small problems in climate research
    with Benedikt Knüsel, Marius Zumwald, Gertrude Hirsch Hadorn, Erich M. Fischer, Reto Knutti, and David M. Bresch
    Nature Climate Change 9 (March 2019): 196-202. 2019.
    Commercial success of big data has led to speculation that big-data-like reasoning could partly replace theory-based approaches in science. Big data typically has been applied to ‘small problems’, which are well-structured cases characterized by repeated evaluation of predictions. Here, we show that in climate research, intermediate categories exist between classical domain science and big data, and that big-data elements have also been applied without the possibility of repeated evaluation. Big…Read more
  •  57
    Explanatorisches Verstehen. Ein Definitionsvorschlag
    Was Dürfen Wir Glauben? Was Sollen Wir Tun? – Sektionsbeiträge des Achten Internationalen Kongresses der Gesellschaft Für Analytische Philosophie E.V. 2013.
    In diesem Aufsatz entwickle ich eine Definition von explanatorischem Verstehen, indem ich dieses mit Wissen vergleiche. Erstens zeige ich, inwiefern explanatorisches Verstehen das Erfassen einer anspruchsvolleren Erklärung und eine anspruchsvollere Rechtfertigung verlangt als explanatorisches Wissen. Zweitens argumentiere ich dafür, dass die Erklärung den Tatsachen gerecht werden muss, explanatorisches Verstehen aber im Gegensatz zu Wissen nicht immer faktiv ist. Drittens verteidige ich die Auff…Read more
  •  56
    Understanding climate phenomena with data-driven models
    Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A 84 (C): 46-56. 2020.
    In climate science, climate models are one of the main tools for understanding phenomena. Here, we develop a framework to assess the fitness of a climate model for providing understanding. The framework is based on three dimensions: representational accuracy, representational depth, and graspability. We show that this framework does justice to the intuition that classical process-based climate models give understanding of phenomena. While simple climate models are characterized by a larger grasp…Read more
  •  50
    Building Confidence in Climate Model Projections: An Analysis of Inferences from Fit
    with Knutti Reto and Hirsch Hadorn Gertrude
    Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change 1-20. 2017.
    Climate model projections are used to inform policy decisions and constitute a major focus of climate research. Confidence in climate projections relies on the adequacy of climate models for those projections. The question of how to argue for the adequacy of models for climate projections has not gotten sufficient attention in the climate modelling community. The most common way to evaluate a climate model is to assess in a quantitative way degrees of “model fit”; i.e., how well model results fi…Read more
  •  47
    Uncertainty quantification using multiple models - Prospects and challenges
    with Reto Knutti and Gertrude Hirsch Hadorn
    In Claus Beisbart & Nicole J. Saam (eds.), Computer Simulation Validation: Fundamental Concepts, Methodological Frameworks, and Philosophical Perspectives, Springer Verlag. pp. 835-855. 2019.
    Model evaluation for long term climate predictions must be done on quantities other than the actual prediction, and a comprehensive uncertainty quantification is impossible. An ad hoc alternative is provided by coordinated model intercomparisons which typically use a “one model one vote” approach. The problem with such an approach is that it treats all models as independent and equally plausible. Reweighting all models of the ensemble for performance and dependence seems like an obvious way to i…Read more
  •  36
    Explicating Objectual Understanding: Taking Degrees Seriously
    Journal for General Philosophy of Science / Zeitschrift für Allgemeine Wissenschaftstheorie 50 (3): 367-388. 2019.
    The paper argues that an account of understanding should take the form of a Carnapian explication and acknowledge that understanding comes in degrees. An explication of objectual understanding is defended, which helps to make sense of the cognitive achievements and goals of science. The explication combines a necessary condition with three evaluative dimensions: an epistemic agent understands a subject matter by means of a theory only if the agent commits herself sufficiently to the theory of th…Read more
  •  34
    Understanding and assessing uncertainty of observational datasets for model evaluation using ensembles
    with Marius Zumwald, Benedikt Knüsel, Gertrude Hirsch Hadorn, David Bresch, and Reto Knutti
    WIREs Climate Change 10 1-19. 2020.
    In climate science, observational gridded climate datasets that are based on in situ measurements serve as evidence for scientific claims and they are used to both calibrate and evaluate models. However, datasets only represent selected aspects of the real world, so when they are used for a specific purpose they can be a source of uncertainty. Here, we present a framework for understanding this uncertainty of observational datasets which distinguishes three general sources of uncertainty: (1) un…Read more
  •  33
    What Types of Values Enter Simulation Validation and What are Their Roles?
    with Gertrude Hirsch Hadorn and Christoph Baumberger
    In Claus Beisbart & Nicole J. Saam (eds.), Computer Simulation Validation: Fundamental Concepts, Methodological Frameworks, and Philosophical Perspectives, Springer Verlag. pp. 961-979. 2019.
    Based on a framework that distinguishes several types, roles and functions of values in science, we discuss legitimate applications of values in the validation of computer simulations. We argue that, first, epistemic values, such as empirical accuracy and coherence with background knowledge, have the role to assess the credibility of simulation results, whereas, second, cognitive values, such as comprehensiveness of a conceptual model or easy handling of a numerical model, have the role to asses…Read more
  •  28
    Architekturphilosophie. Grundlagentexte (edited book)
    Mentis. 2013.
    Ist die Architektur eine Kunst, obwohl Bauwerke meistens keine Kunstwerke sind? Was macht Bauwerke zu Kunstwerken und was bestimmt ihren ästhetischen Wert? Was ist spezifisch für unsere Erfahrung architektonischer Werke? In welcher Weise, wenn überhaupt, tragen Bauwerke Bedeutung? Was ist gemeint, wenn von der Identität von Bauwerken die Rede ist? Hat die Architektur eine ethische Funktion? Brauchen wir eine Ethik der Architektur? Die hier versammelten Aufsätze nehmen zu solchen Fragen Stellung.…Read more
  •  26
    Kunst aktiviert Kunst. Ein Framework für eine funktionale Analyse der Museumsarchitektur
    In Jakob Steinbrenner & Julian Nida-Rümelin (eds.), Kontextarchitektur, Hatje-cantz. pp. 49-76. 2010.
    Im Zusammenhang mit der Museumsarchitektur wie auch sonst in der Architekturtheorie und der Philosophie der Architektur werden die Ausdrücke »Funktion« und »funktional« sehr häufig verwendet, aber kaum je expliziert. In diesem Aufsatz schlage ich eine Explikation des architektonischen Funktionsbegriffs vor, um am Beispiel der Museumsarchitektur ein Framework für eine funktionale Analyse von Bauwerken zu entwickeln. Im Anschluss an meinen Explikationsvorschlag, der es erlaubt, verschiedene Funkt…Read more
  •  21
    The profession of the master builder has become differentiated in the course of the technological developments stemming from industrialization, separating into the professional disciplines of the architect (in the modern sense) and the structural engineer. Ever since, the question has been about the relationship between architect and structural engineer and the nature of their collaboration. Differing responses have been propagated in architectural theory and exemplified by building practice. In…Read more
  •  21
    In den letzten Jahren ist verschiedentlich vorgeschlagen worden, die philosophischen Ansätze zur Architektur in einer eigenständigen Disziplin der Architekturphilosophie zu-sammenzufassen. Im vorliegenden Beitrag gebe ich eine allgemeine Charakterisierung der Architekturphilosophie, indem ich sie einerseits von der Architekturtheorie abgrenze und andererseits in der Philosophie verorte. Im ersten Teil diskutiere ich verschiedene Ideen, die Abgrenzung von der Architekturtheorie über autorbezogen…Read more
  •  21
    Welche Rolle spielt ein Verständnis der Konstruktion eines Bauwerks für seine ästhetische Erfahrung und Wertschätzung? In diesem Beitrage argumentiere ich für die These, dass die ästhetische Erfahrung und Wertschätzung von Bauwerken wesentlich von einem Verständnis ihrer Konstruktion abhängt, und zwar selbst dann, wenn Bauwerke ihre Konstruktion weder direkt zeigen noch indirekt darauf anspielen. In einem ersten Schritt bette ich meine These in ein umfassenderes Bild ein, indem ich die ästhetisc…Read more
  •  19
    Architektur im Gebrauch. Gebaute Umwelt als Lebenswelt
    with Sabine Ammon, Christine Neubert, and Constanze Petrow
    Universitätsverlag der TU Berlin. 2018.
    Der Tagungsband versammelt Beiträge des 2. Forums Architekturwissenschaft zum Thema Architektur im Gebrauch, das vom 25. bis 27. November 2015 im Schader-Forum in Darmstadt stattfand. Die Beiträge nähern sich dem Thema grundlegend in zwei Perspektiven. Zum einen interessiert die lebensweltliche Verankerung von Architektur: die Gebrauchserfahrungen und die vielfältigen Weisen, in denen das Gebaute im Alltag jedes Menschen in Erscheinung tritt. Zum anderen werden die Vorstellungen vom Gebrauch in …Read more
  •  17
    Gebaute Zeichen zeigt am Beispiel der Architektur, wie auf der Grundlage der Arbeiten von Nelson Goodman eine leistungsfähige Symboltheorie entwickelt werden kann. Neben der bisher umfassendsten Rekonstruktion enthält das Buch wichtige Modifikationen und wesentliche Erweiterungen von Goodmans Theorie. Die resultierende Symboltheorie der Architektur bietet ein weit reicheres Instrumentarium zur Interpretation von Bauwerken als bestehende Architektursemiotiken. Zudem entgeht sie einer Reihe von Ei…Read more