Afshin Rashid

Nanostructures refer to materials or structures that have at least one dimension between 1 and 100 nanometersThe importance of the nanoscale is in changing the properties and characteristics of materials at these dimensions. Properties such as electrical conductivity, electromagnetic properties, etc. The beginning of changing the properties of materials by reducing them depends more than anything on the type of material and the desired property. For example, as the dimensions of a material decrease , generally some of the electromagnetic properties of nanomolecular materials such as the conductivity of nano particles in the material improve. This increase in strength does not only occur in the range of a few nanometers, and the strength of a material of several tens or even hundreds of nanometers may be much greater than that of a large-scale bulk material. On the other hand, changes in some properties such as conductivity in nanotransistors and electromagnetic properties in nanowires may occur in dimensions of only a few nanometers.

There are three theories about the conduction through DNA, one is that DND is a semiconductor with a very large gap. The other is that DND is a semiconductor with a small gap and also that DND has metallic properties. The main point is that DND is a very complex material whose properties can be greatly affected by environmental conditions. One of these effective environmental conditions is the presence of water. DNDs that are in a dry environment are very different from DNDs that are in a humid environment. Therefore, considering the local conditions prevailing on DND, a definitive conclusion cannot be made about whether DND is a metal or a semi-metal, but what is certain is that DND is a semiconductor with a large gap. In the normal state, there are ions that can be manipulated to change the conductive properties of DND, meaning that it can be hoped that by adding ions it can even be converted into a metal. Another interesting point is that DND can be used as a template and a series of metals can be placed on DND in specific places to create a metal wire around DND. In this case, DND is used as a template to keep the desired wire stable.

With the remarkable achievements in nanotechnology and nanotechnology, nanomaterial-based nanoelectrochemical signal amplification has great potential in enhancing the sensitivity and selectivity for electrochemical nanoparticles and biosensors. First of all, it is well known that electrode materials play an important role in constructing high-performance nanoelectrochemical sensing platforms for detecting target molecules through various analytical principles. In addition, in addition to electrode materials, functional nanomaterials can not only create a synergistic effect among catalytic activity, conductivity and biocompatibility to accelerate signal transduction, but also enhance biological events with specially designed signal labels, leading to highly sensitive desensitization. The construction of functional electrode materials, together with nanobiochemical and nanoelectrochemical methods, will promote the widespread application of electrochemical nanosensors. An electrochemical nano biosensor is a device that provides direct information about the chemical composition of its environment and presents it to us in the form of an electrical, optical, etc. signal. An electrochemical nano biosensor is a device that provides direct information about the chemical composition of its environment and presents it to us in the form of an electrical, optical, etc. signal.

In general, chemical reactions to produce materials can take place in any of the solid, liquid, and gas states. The common method for producing materials in solids is to increase the contact surface area by crushing the particles, and then to increase the rate of diffusion of atoms and ions, this mixture is further increased at high temperatures. In chemistry, the substances with which chemical reactions are initiated are called reactants and the substances into which the reactants are converted during the reaction are called products. Reactants can be solid, liquid, or gas. In addition, reactants can be either an independent element themselves or can be in the form of multicomponent compounds. Multicomponent compounds are usually called precursors. Many methods have been developed to produce nanoparticles or nanostructured particles, including vapor, liquid, and solid state processes.

First, conventional transistors and their limitations and the problems of miniaturization are discussed, and to solve this problem, solid-state transistors that exploit quantum effects at the nanoscale, and among them, the resonant tunneling transistor is used. Electronic computers have become much more powerful than in the past, and transistors have gradually become smaller. However, reducing the size of current field-effect transistors will be impossible in the near future due to the effects of quantum mechanics and the limitations of manufacturing techniques. In the coming years, as mass production of transistors decreases from their current size to below 100 nm, the device will become difficult and expensive to manufacture. In addition, they can no longer function well as ultra-compact integrated circuits. To overcome this problem, there are basically two main classes of nanoelectronic switches that are also used as amplifiers.

In the production of nanochips and nanotransistors, when the repulsive force overcomes the surface tension, the electric field reaches a critical value or threshold. Initially, the jet moves in a linear pattern, then slowly deviates from the linear pattern and forms a complex shape along the path towards the collector. The structure and construction of nanochips and nanotransistors and the length of the jet are proportional to the applied voltage. The structure of the Taylor nanocone changes from convex to concave with changing field strength and subsequently (jet charge density). The miniaturization of components in microelectronic systems and circuits has led to significant growth of this industry in recent years. The growth rate of this industry is such that as components become smaller, the number of transistors available per unit area of each semiconductor chip and nanochip has increased. The miniaturization of these components can reduce the consumption of raw materials and energy, reduce the cost of these components, and increase their speed and efficiency. Therefore, the manufacture and development of electronic devices with smaller dimensions and greater speed and efficiency has become increasingly important. Lithography is a common method for manufacturing electronic circuits. With the help of this method, structures with a precision and dimensions of 0.1 nanometers can be manufactured. Finding techniques that can be used to use this method for the industrial production of these components (nanochips and microchips).

With the proliferation of nanochips and microelements, medical diagnostic laboratories are able to examine and measure hundreds of biological substances, from counting blood cells to detailed examination of blood factors and other body fluids and tissues. Clinical pathology laboratories, various types of imaging systems such as radiology, ultrasound, endoscopy, CT scan, MRI and other specialized diagnostic methods for examining various diseases such as angiography, echocardiography, electrocardiography and electromyography and other organs have been greatly developed. With the development of human knowledge in the fields of cellular and molecular sciences, genetics and identification of genes causing various diseases, determining the genome sequence of pathogens, examining and comparing them and creating genomic databases, developing molecular diagnostic methods, specialized laboratories use these methods for accurate diagnosis of infectious pathogens, some genetic disorders and even in some cases for prenatal diagnosis and the possibility of the fetus suffering from severe hereditary diseases and determining the sex of the fetus.

Genome Nano biochip mainly includes three types: DNA microarray , protein microarray, and microfluidic chip. By integrating microarray and microfluidic systems, a total micro-nano analysis system , often referred to as a lab-on-a-chip (LOC), is produced. Advances in nanotechnology have continuously reduced the size of biochemistry , which in turn has reduced the manufacturing cost and increased its high-throughput capability. Due to the advantages of low cost, high throughput, and nanominiaturization, this technology has great potential. The biggest advantage of DNA arrays is its high speed and high throughput, and it is used in various genomic applications, including analysis by electrical nanoparticles . Genome Nano biochip , especially functional microarrays , is used to study fundamental biological properties such as investigating the interaction of cells or other molecules. Genome Nanobiochips are capable of performing a variety of chemical and cellular analysis, separation, and reaction. Genome Nanobiochips are one of the fastest growing areas of microfabrication and nanotechnology development, and many technologies are being used to develop applications in a wide range of disciplines, including analysis and diagnosis in cells by nanoparticles.

These synthetic nanosensors and gas nanosensors are prepared by attaching special particles to the ends of carbon nanotubes and calculating the vibration frequency in the presence or absence of particles. These nanosensors are often used to detect and control chemical reactions by nanoparticles. The construction of gas nanosensors has been one of the most important topics in recent decades due to their many applications in various food, chemical, health, military and even space research industries. Leakage of deadly gases is one of the daily dangers of industrial life. Unfortunately, the alarm systems in the industry often fail to detect such gas leaks very late. Examples of this type of sensors are made of single-layer nanotubes with a thickness of about one nanometer and can absorb toxic gas molecules. They are also able to detect a small number of molecules of deadly gases in the environment. Such gas sensors have been successfully tested to identify ammonia and nitrogen dioxide gases, which are among the toxic gases. These sensors will be used to detect bio-chemical war gases, air pollutants and even organic molecules in space

Molecular communication is a natural communication method used by living organisms (e.g., pheromone communication) and is predicted to become a portable method for future nanodevices. The concentration of a molecule in the close vicinity of the receiver may be used to sense the transmitter of the molecular bit being sent. Quantum communication is based on the transfer of entangled pairs from one location to another, using exchange, repetition, and purification. Quantum interference or quantum parallelism gives us enormous computational power, especially in source coding, where information about the entire content is needed instead of individual inputs. FRET is a non-radiative energy transfer process between fluorescent molecules based on dipole-dipole interactions of the molecules. Energy is rapidly transferred from a donor to an acceptor molecule in close proximity, such as 0 to 10 nm, without the emission of a photon. Low dependence on environmental factors, control of its parameters, and relatively wide transmission range make FRET suitable for high-speed nanoscale communication channels.

The origin of noise in nanoelectronics is currently mostly in carbon nanotubes based on the nanocommunicative functions and the structure of graphene particles in nanotubes in interaction for nanocommunication purposes by (nanoparticles) in single-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and multi-walled CNTs. Nanomaterials with high surface-to-volume ratio are very attractive for noise generated by nanoelectrons because they are very sensitive to changes in their surface. A representative material of this type is carbon nanotubes, which are rolled sheets of hexagonal graphene lattice, which are only one carbon atom thick. Simple nanocommunication devices consist of a carbon nanotube that forms two electrodes. These magnetic communication particles are exposed to different large molecules, causing some of them to bind to the surface of the carbon nanotube. In nanocommunications, different molecules give off unique acoustic signals related to the properties of the molecules. The strength of the interaction between the carbon nanotubes and the molecules arises from the noise signals. In nanocommunicators interacting with carbon nanotube-based electronic nanoparticles, the signal generated by the carbon nanotube device is modified following the absorption of specific single molecules. This is because the absorbing molecule creates a trap state in the carbon nanotube, which causes it to conduct. This means that carbon nanotube-based nanocommunicators are very sensitive. They can detect an unprecedented amount of single molecules. The ability to characterize single molecules using highly sensitive nanoelectronics is an exciting prospect in the field of sensors, especially for neural and biosensor applications. The use of acoustic signals to detect molecular activity ((interaction) or (active orbital)) is attractive. In nanocommunicators and interacting with carbon nanotube-based electronic nanoparticles, the sensitivity of signal detection may be increased by the generation of controllable noise. These carbon nanotube-based nanocommunicators demonstrate that it is possible to detect single molecules through their unique noise particles in current nanocommunicator signals. Improved knowledge about the molecular origin and interaction of noise with carbon nanotube-based electronic nanoparticles should lead to the development of electronics that use noise to improve their performance rather than degrade it.

Note : Since the use of optical nano-antennas for solar energy harvesting offers a practical solution with high efficiency compared to other common photovoltaic technologies such as solar panels, it has led to rapid development in the nano-and optical materials industry. When a solar electromagnetic wave strikes the surface of a nanoantenna, a time-varying current is generated on the surface of the nanoantenna, resulting in a voltage at its feed gap. An antenna is a device that can receive electromagnetic waves in space. In order for an antenna to receive a solar electromagnetic wave, the dimensions of the antenna must be on the order of the wavelength of the incoming wave to its surface

The main difference between nanotube antennas and classical antennas is that if the wave speed is the speed of light, the current distribution wavelength is the wavelength of electromagnetic waves in free space. On the other hand, the wave speed in nanotubes is about a hundred times slower than the speed of light. This is because in circuit theory, the wave speed is equal to the inverse square root of the capacitive capacitance per unit length multiplied by the inductive capacitance per unit length .Nano-networks have greater communication and processing potentials that overcome the limitations of independent nano-devices through the cooperation of nano-devices. One of the problems that has not yet been well solved in nanotechnology is how to establish electrical communication between nano-electronic devices and the macroscopic world without losing the capabilities of these nano-elements. One of these new areas and functions of nano-technology is nano-antennas , which are used in various fields such as nano-sensors, communication nano-networks, electrical energy generation and other similar topics and are considered as one of the current areas of nano-technology development. At the nano-scale, graphene-based antennas are used to transmit EM waves. Graphene is a very thin single-atom sheet of confined carbon atoms placed on a crystal lattice . Given the very small dimensions of nano-sensors, nano-antennas need to have a very high operating frequency in order to be usable. However, the use of graphene helps to solve this problem to a large extent. With the development of nanoscale device fabrication technology, it has become possible to fabricate nanoantennas and use them in various applications. Communication between nanodevices is a major challenge related to the development of nanoantennas and related electromagnetic receivers. Reducing the size of traditional antennas to hundreds of nanometers leads to very high operating frequencies . At THz band frequencies, the very large bandwidth available leads to much higher path loss than lower frequency bands . Nanoantennas can be made from metallic materials such as silver , aluminum, chromium , gold, and copper, or they can be made from new materials such as CNTs and graphene, which are attractive choices for nanoantennas. Using graphene to fabricate antennas can overcome size and communication limitations. In addition, the resonant frequency of nanoantennas based on graphene can be up to two orders of magnitude larger than that of nanoantennas made with other materials.

Fullerenes are among the materials that many nano materials are based on. Their unique structural and electronic properties, as well as their use in various fields such as electronic applications such as making nano electrodes used in special electrical circuits , nano photonics in nano solar cells and nano absorbers of specific wavelengths. Layers of nanotubes can behave like a metal and be electrically angled. Changing the structure and building in them can show the characteristics of semiconductors. or be non-conductive. For example, a slight change in the helix can change the tube from a metal to a wide-gap semiconductor.

Nanoparticles can also be used as catalysts due to their high surface area. Of course, catalytic properties also occur in certain dimensions like magnetic properties. In other words, nanoparticles usually have catalytic properties if their specific surface is between 100 and 400 square meters per gram. Therefore, among nanoparticles with a specific volume, a nanoparticle with a larger surface area shows better catalytic properties. An example of nanoparticles that act as catalysts where various substances are placed on their surface and chemical reactions are carried out. Apart from the mentioned cases, nanoparticles have many other applications in various medical industries (drug delivery, etc.), automobiles (anti-fogging windows, lightening the body, strengthening tires), electronics (making transistors), etc. The strength of carbon-carbon bonds gives carbon nanotubes amazing electronic properties. No previous material exhibits the extraordinary combination of mechanical, thermal and electronic properties attributed to them . However, their conductivity is what sets them apart. Multi-layered carbon nanotubes are the strongest materials that mankind has discovered so far in terms of electronic conductivity. The highest tensile strength or breaking strain for a carbon nanotube was up to 63 GPa, which is about 50 times more than the strongest conductors. Even the weakest types of multi-layered carbon nanotubes have multifold power in electronic conduction. These properties, along with the lightness of carbon nanotubes, give them great potential in applications such as aerospace. The electronic properties of the wall of carbon nanotubes are also extraordinary. It has high electrical conductivity (comparable to copper). It is particularly noteworthy that nanotubes can be metallic or semiconducting. The rolling action breaks the symmetry of the planar system and imposes a specific direction with respect to the hexagonal grid and the axial direction. Depending on the relationship between these axial directions and the unit vectors that describe the hexagonal lattice, nanotubes may behave electrically like metals or semiconductors , with some nanotubes having higher conductivity than copper, while Others behave more like silicon . And there are possibilities of making nano electronic devices from multi-layer nanotubes of CNTs.

The division is based on the wavelength of the output beam and the wave- length of the output beam of the wide range nano laser. According to this and the wavelength, the types of nano lasers include infrared, visible and ultraviolet lasers, for example, the nano laser produces a beam with a wavelength of about 858.32 X-rays, the wavelength of a solid nano laser is between 9.6 and 10.6 It is a microme- ter. This is because the wavelength of liquid lasers are in the infrared and ultraviolet regions, respectively.

The use of AFM for scanning probe lithography also suffers from power-related problems, but it is better suited than STM for this task due to the less stringent requirements of the technique: no very high vacuum conditions. , conductive surface or very good tip-to-sample distance control is required. Scanning probe nanolithography based on AFM can be performed through different mechanisms and offers a wide range of possibilities . Therefore, the AFM tip can produce localized changes in the composition, height, or physical/chemical properties of surfaces through thermal effects, mechanical effects, deposition, chemical effects, etc. The principle of this technique for making electronic nano devices has been drawn and the example of making Si nanowires based on the oxidation of nanolithography probe Scanning is done. A derived technique that has become very popular is dip-pen nanolithography, in which the tip deposits specific inks with excellent clarity at desired locations.

The recent advent of high-resolution imaging and force spectroscopy using atomic force mi- croscopy (AFM) in organic and inorganic solutions opens the way to imaging a wide variety of surfaces and their solvent structure. However, to take full advantage of the high resolution and provide signicant new analytical capability, a detailed understanding of the background contrast mechanisms that lead to atomic and molecular resolution is critical. Without a theory that connects the measured force to atomic models of the surface and tip of the microscope, the information that can be distilled from these measurements is limited. Molecular dynamics simulations show that the forces acting on the microscope tip result from the direct interaction between a tip and a surface and are entirely due to the structure of water around the tip and surface.

Signal measurement Electrochemical methods are very suitable for detecting direct DNA oxidation because electrochemical reactions directly generate electronic signals and therefore do not require expensive converters. In addition, in this process, because the order of the immobilized game can be limited to onlya series of electrode substrates, the act of tracking is performed by a series of in expensive electrochemical analyzes. Electrochemical sensors are used to perform clinical or environmental tests; The basis of the sensitivity of electrochemical signals to direct oxidation orinterval catalysis of DNA is also based on the reduction reactions of reporter molecules or enzymes.

Note: Nanoelectronics technology has dedicated some very exciting materials to improve the sensing phenomenon. The use of various nanomaterials, including nanoparticles, nanotubes, nanotubes, and nanowires, causes faster identification and reproducibility in a much better way. The unique properties of nanomaterials such as high electrical conductivity, better shock tolerance, and sensitive responses such as versatile piezo-electric and color detection mechanisms are only results of the multitude of properties of nanomaterials. Different types of biosensors are propagated based on different types of nano materials and their developmental and implicit aspects. Measurement of biological responses has assumed great importance in the current scenario of ever-dynamic environmental developments and altered hemostatic events occurring at the in vivo as well as intracorporeal level. Analyzing the behavior of changing materials is of great importance in areas such as pharmaceutical diagnostics, food quality screening, and environmental applications.

based on organic materials can be mechanically exible to a large extent because of the loose intermolecular bonds in the nano-electrons created from them. Unlike these organic materials, minerals such as silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide can be used in the structure of electronic devices only in crystalline states, and in this case, covalent bonds make exibility impossible in them. Makes. Properties such as strength, exibility, electrical conductivity, magnetic properties, color, reactivity, etc. Starting to change the properties of the material by shrinking it depends more than anything on the type of material and the desired property. For example, by reducing the dimensions of a material, generally some mechanical properties of the material such as strength are improved. This increase in strength does not happen only in the range of a few nanometers, and the strength of materials of several tens and even hundreds of nanometers may be much higher than the large-scale mass material. On the other hand, the change of some properties such as color and magnetic properties may occur in dimensions of only a few nanometers.

Note: In general, in order to receive the electromagnetic wave in the space, the dimensions of the antenna must be in the order of the wavelength of the input to its surface. Due to the very small dimensions of nano sensors, nano antennas need to have a very high working frequency to be usable. The use of graphene helps to solve this problem to a great extent. The speed of propagation of waves in CNTs and GNRs can be 100 times lower than its speed in vacuum, and this is related to the physical structure, temperature and energy. Based on this, the resonance frequency of graphene-based nano-antennas can be two orders of magnitude lower than nano-antennas based on nano-carbon materials. It has been mathematically and theoretically proven that a quasi-metallic carbon nanotube can emit terahertz radiation when a time-varying voltage is applied to its sides. One of the most important parameters of any nano antenna is the current distribution on it. This characteristic determines the radiation pattern, radiation resistance and reactance and many important characteristics of the antenna. Despite the possibilities of making nanotubes with a length of several centimeters, it is possible to make electrical conductors with a length-to-width ratio of the order of 10^7. has it. At first glance, nanotube antennas give us the impression that they are similar to Dipole antennas designed in small dimensions.

MEMS is a structural technology, an example of the design and development of sophisticated, well integrated electronics systems and mechanical devices utilizing single-stage manufacturing techniques . Techniques for making the MEMS enables the components and equipment with performance and increased production are combined with the advantages of the ordinary, such as reducing the size of the physical volume, weight and cost and providing a basis for the production of non-manufacturing methods, the other is the reality of internal order Technology MEMS and its micro-machining techniques are well versed in its application to an unprecedented range of MEMS devices over previous dependent fields (for example Biology and Microelectronics) These agents make MEMS far more comprehensive than IC microchips technology .

The antenna is considered as the primary means of absorbing electromagnetic waves in space and has its own engineering knowledge, which is very developed and extensive. In general, in order to receive the electromagnetic wave in space, the dimensions of the antenna must be in the order of the size of the input wavelength to its surface. Due to the very low dimensions of nano-sensors, nano-antennas need a very high operating frequency to be usable. The use of graphene greatly helps to solve this problem. Wave propagation velocities in CNTs and GNRs can be up to 100 times slower than vacuum velocities, depending on the physical structure, temperature and energy. Accordingly, the resonant frequency of graphene-based nano-antennas can be twice as low as (nano-carbon) nano-antennas.

The antenna is considered as the primary means of absorbing electromagnetic waves in space and has its own engineering knowledge, which is very developed and extensive. In general, in order to receive the electromagnetic wave in space, the dimensions of the antenna must be in the order of the size of the input wavelength to its surface. Due to the very low dimensions of nano-sensors, nano-antennas need a very high operating frequency to be usable. The use of graphene greatly helps to solve this problem. Wave propagation velocities in CNTs and GNRs can be up to 100 times slower than vacuum velocities, depending on the physical structure, temperature and energy. Accordingly, the resonant frequency of graphene-based nano-antennas can be twice as low as (nano-carbon) nano-antennas.

Nowadays, many semiconductors such as silicon are used in a wide range of nanoelectronic devices. However, due to the range of thermal changes and its extremely high speed, nano diamond is only compared to gold nanoparticles, which is the second best nano semiconductor in the world. Nano graphite and graphene nano strips are electrically conductive due to cloud scattering. Active nano diamond particles with such features, especially electronic ones, can be the foundation of completely new types of powerful nano electronic devices.

The unique properties of nanomaterials such as high electrical conductivity, better shock tolerance, and sensitive responses such as versatile piezo-electric and color detection mechanisms are only results of the multitude of properties of nanomaterials. Different types of biosensors are propagated based on different types of nanomaterials and their developmental and implicit aspects. Measurement of biological responses has assumed great importance in the current scenario of ever-dynamic environmental developments and altered hemostatic events occurring at the in vivo as well as intracorporeal level . Analyzing the behavior of changing materials is of great importance in areas such as pharmaceutical diagnostics, food quality screening, and environmental applications.