Alexander Romero Sanchez

Technological advancement is transforming the nature of contemporary armed conflicts. The war between Russia and Ukraine has highlighted the increasingly critical role of advanced technologies—such as artificial intelligence, cyber systems and autonomous weapons on the battlefield. This integration raises legal and ethical challenges within the framework of International Humanitarian Law, requiring an examination of its application and scope. This article first reviews the IHL regulatory frameworks applicable to the use of emerging technologies. It then identifies ethical dilemmas arising from drone attacks, digital sabotage operations and algorithmic disinformation practices. The methodology employed consists of a qualitative documentary approach that integrates sources from 2017 to 2025, including United Nations resolutions, reports from the International Committee of the Red Cross, UNESCO technical documents and analyses from specialized research centers. The corpus is organized into three analytical dimensions: IHL regulation, relevant technological characteristics and political-legal impacts. Through a thematic comparative method, normative standards are cross-referenced with case studies involving kamikaze drones, cyberattacks on critical infrastructure and artificial-intelligence-based facial recognition in military operations. The conclusions reveal regulatory gaps regarding meaningful human control, responsibility attribution, algorithmic transparency and the protection of civilian assets. The analysis shows that the conflict exposes substantive limitations within the current international framework and underscores the need to strengthen these mechanisms to address the challenges posed by disruptive military technologies.

The article examines the evolution, since 1945, of the cardinal principles of International Humanitarian Law (military necessity, distinction, proportionality, prohibition of unnecessary suffering and precautions in attack) and their articulation with the core principles of disarmament law (transparency, verifiability, irreversibility and non discrimination). Through a qualitative, legal-dogmatic and historical-critical approach based on treaties, international jurisprudence, UN resolutions and specialized doctrine, it reconstructs how both sets of principles have progressively converged, forming a shared humanitarian framework to limit means and methods of warfare. The study shows that concerns inherent to IHL have driven major humanitarian disarmament processes, including the prohibition of chemical and biological weapons, anti-personnel landmines, cluster munitions and, more recently, nuclear weapons. It also analyzes the challenges posed by autonomous weapons systems,artificial intelligence in hostilities and offensive cyber operations, assessing whether existing IHL and disarmament principles provide adequate parameters for their regulation. It concludes that the interdependence between both branches is essential to guiding the governance of emerging technologies.

The increasing incorporation of drones, artificial intelligence (AI), autonomous weapons, and cyber capabilities into armed conflicts is reshaping practices of organized violence and expanding legal, political, and security controversies surrounding the use of force. This article examines the evolution of this debate and addresses the following question: how has the legal, political, and security discussion surrounding these technologies in armed conflicts changed? A systematic literature review complemented by bibliometric analysis was conducted. The search was carried out in Web of Science (SSCI), and the selection followed the PRISMA guidelines, with explicit inclusion and exclusion criteria. The 2020–2025 period yielded a corpus of 33 articles, which was analyzed through journal mapping, topic–author–country relationships, thematic evolution, and lexical comparison. The methodology combines quantitative and bibliometric analyses supported by tools such as Biblioshiny and Posit PBC™. The results show a shift from questioning the applicability of international law toward the operationalization of International Humanitarian Law (IHL) under conditions of distance, automation, and accelerated decision-making. In the case of drones, the focus moves from “precision” to institutional opacity, accountability, and proliferation. Regarding AI and autonomous weapons, the debate centers on decision-making agency, meaningful human control, and responsibility frameworks. In cybersecurity, disputes predominantly concern the notion of “attack,” attribution, and escalation risks, with increasing relevance of the temporal dimension. It is concluded that the prevailing regulatory response tends to re-operationalize IHL through standards, progressive clarification of obligations, and incremental international stabilization mechanisms.

This study examines the impact of artificial intelligence (AI) adoption on operational efficiency in tourism firms, incorporating implementation challenges as a mediating mechanism. Drawing on Diffusion of Innovations, Service-Dominant Logic, and Dynamic Capabilities theory, the research proposes an explanatory structural model linking chatbot use, service automation, and predictive analytics to operational performance outcomes. Data were collected from 121 tourism SMEs located in Cali, Colombia, and analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The results indicate that AI adoption positively influences operational efficiency both directly and indirectly through implementation challenges, confirming partial mediation. Chatbot use emerges as the strongest driver of AI integration, followed by service automation and predictive analytics. The findings suggest that operational benefits derived from AI depend not only on technological deployment but also on organizations' capacity to manage technical, regulatory, and human barriers. This study contributes empirical evidence from an underrepresented Latin American context and advances understanding of AI as a systemic organizational capability.

This article is the result of a research process supported by bibliographic references drawn from history in general and from the history of law in particular, grounded in constitutional transformations and the concept of the citizen, and analytically sustained by constitutional law, legal theory, sociology, and legal anthropology. The legal theory referenced in the study is critical theory, which aims to reveal what is formal in order to expose situations excluded from analyses of constitutional history—such as the processes of exclusion reproduced in the constitutional texts themselves against people and collectives belonging to the emerging republics that would shape the Latin American region. The article is divided into five parts. The first, titled “The First Constitutions in Hispanic America,” discusses the promulgation of the first constitutions of the newly formed republics, which sought to enshrine the rule of law and rights inspired by the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, in order for nation-states to appear modern within a context of gradual departure from Iberian colonization. The second part, “Exclusion in the 1811 Constitution of Cundinamarca,” shows how the first constitution enacted in the region excluded many from citizenship; only a few who met the requirements established in the constitutional text could participate in elections or be elected to government positions. The third part, “The 1811 Constitution of Tunja: Between Rights and Exclusion,” presents its pro-independence stance and recognizes certain rights of the citizens of the nascent republic; however, it also restricts who may run state institutions to a narrow group, thus reproducing political and social exclusion. The fourth part, “Other Exclusionary Constitutions in the Region,” explains how constitutions proclaimed in emerging states such as Mexico and Brazil continued the same exclusionary pattern regarding citizenship and leadership selection that had appeared in the constitutions of Nueva Granada. The fifth and final chapter, “Constitutionalism and the Conception of the Citizen in Latin America,” shows that the promulgation of constitutions in the region pursued state organization as a historical priority, given the transition away from colonial and monarchical domination toward modern nation-states. Despite that transformation promoted by the independence movements, the constitutions established criteria for determining citizenship that, based on the conditions required to elect or be elected as rulers, restricted political participation to a few, thereby institutionalizing political and social exclusion.

This article examines the evolution of industrial revolutions and their influence on international law, from initial mechanization to the challenges of the digital age. The First Industrial Revolution spurred the consolidation of the first humanitarian treaties and international technical agreements, linking technological progress with the need for legal regulation. The Second Industrial Revolution, marked by electricity and mass production, generated an expansion of norms surrounding intellectual property, labor rights, and the limitations of mechanized warfare. The Third Industrial Revolution, characterized by automation and the expansion of information technology, strengthened an international institutional framework that included the United Nations and specialized agencies, along with new environmental, economic, and human rights regimes. Revolution 4.0, defined by artificial intelligence, biotechnology, and digitalization, poses unprecedented challenges to state sovereignty, human dignity, and legal accountability, highlighting the inadequacy of traditional regulatory frameworks. Debates are emerging regarding autonomous weapons, algorithmic governance, and digital trade, which require adaptive and polycentric regulations. Finally, Revolution 5.0 proposes a human-centric and sustainable paradigm that seeks to reorient technological development toward global justice, intergenerational equity, and the protection of digital rights. Overall, it concludes that the transition from fragmented international law to flexible and polycentric governance is imperative to effectively respond to contemporary technological challenges, preserving peace, justice, and fundamental rights in an increasingly complex global landscape.

The scope of the just judicial decision identifies the conceptual solidity not only of the legal order within which the decisional act is inserted as a category but also of the degree of rational recognition that this normative order socially communicates as fair. In this context, a judicial decision issued rationally within a contractually signed system is always pure positive law, but positive law, after all, is characterized by the fact that the act of issuing a sentence will always be a representation of the jurisdictional power of the State. It will then be the State as a positive institution that, fulfilling its duty of subjection to the principle of the rule of law, assumes as its mandate the linguistic communication of the normative text. A normative decision (judgment), legally binding, issued in the aforementioned circumstances, always runs the risk of being qualified as intolerable, or, as Radbruch puts it, an unjust decision. It is there, where, in principle, lies the purpose of this essay, trying to establish what is the basis for the rational validity of the fair judicial decision

El presente Libro es el resultado de un proceso de investigación científica conjunta en relación a La nulidad de los actos administrativos en Colombia es una institución jurisdiccional y por eso sólo la jurisdicción contencioso administrativa (jueces, tribunales y Consejo de Estado), tiene la competencia exclusiva y excluyente para anular un Acto Administrativo de cualquier autoridad administrativa del Estado o de personas particulares con función y servicio públicos. Basada la nulidad e inexistencia del acto administrativo en el debido proceso administrativo impone a las entidades del Estado adelantar cualquier actuación o procedimiento administrativo, cuyo propósito sea crear, modificar o extinguir situaciones jurídicas, con la estricta observancia de los lineamientos previamente consagrados por el legislador, esto con el objeto de garantizar a los ciudadanos que puedan verse afectados por el ejercicio de la función pública, la protección de sus derechos de contradicción y defensa. Por tanto, el presente Libro es el esbozo organizado de capítulos atientes abordar antecedentes, metodologías, objetivos, marco de referencia, casos y jurisprudencia en materia de Acto administrativo.

Este estudio emplea una revisión sistemática siguiendo el protocolo PRISMA para analizar el estado actual de las Spin offs académicas como vehículos de transferencia tecnológica y conocimiento desde las universidades hacia el sector productivo. A partir de una búsqueda en Web of Science, se seleccionaron 23 artículos relevantes entre 969 registros iniciales, utilizando criterios rigurosos de inclusión y exclusión. La metodología combina análisis cuantitativos y bibliométricos apoyados en herramientas como Biblioshiny y Posit PBC™. Los resultados identifican cuatro factores fundamentales para el éxito de las Spin offs académicas: políticas públicas y financiamiento, transferencia tecnológica, competencias emprendedoras y capital humano, y modelos de financiación innovadores. El estudio concluye que es esencial equilibrar los recursos públicos y privados, evitando que la comercialización afecte la misión académica, y que la creación de ecosistemas colaborativos es clave para maximizar el impacto de las Spin offs en entornos económicos y sociales.

Research into the factors influencing university-industry collaboration on public university spin offs creation has focused on management, entrepreneurship, technology and innovation. This research began with a careful systematic literature review of 4427 scientific papers published in the last ten years (2014–2023) and accessible in the prestigious Web of Science core collection. A quantitative methodology was used, complemented by the use of the visual analysis tool Posit PBC™, formerly known as R Cloud Studio. This comprehensive approach facilitated the seamless ingestion of raw data into Biblioshyni, which is a web-based platform specialised in bibliometric analysis. This review has revealed compelling trends, particularly in terms of increasing diversity, the emergence of United Kingdom as a major player, and the central role of university-industry collaboration. Our systematic review identified influential authors in the field, including the prolific contributions of scholars such as D. Radicid, S. Ropers, Y. Li and R. Owen. We also identified important research institutions, such as Utrecht University in Netherlands, Lund University in Sweden and The University of Manchester in the UK. In addition, we have shown that countries such as the United Kingdom, China and USA have made a significant contribution to the volume of publications. The results highlighted a marked increase in the phenomenon of univeristy spin-offs over the past decade, as evidenced by the exponential growth in both publication output and citation rates. This empirical revelation was underpinned by a rigorous exploration of the Web of Science database, using a carefully crafted set of keywords. Thirty-seven pivotal studies were selected for in-depth review through a sophisticated selection process that adhered to the rigorous standards of the PRISMA methodology. The aim of this review is to improve understanding and encourage deeper exploration of spin-off-based public universities through collaboration between academia and industry.

Academic entrepreneurship and the creation of academic spin-offs are essential pillars for driving innovation and economic development globally. However, the trajectory of these initiatives shows significant differences between developed and emerging countries, such as Colombia. This study conducts a systematic review of articles indexed in Web of Science, using the PRISMA protocol to ensure a rigorous and reproducible selection. From a total of 2,532 articles published in the last decade (2014-2024), 40 were selected according to strict exclusion criteria. The methodology includes an interpretative paradigmatic view and a subjective study, complemented by the visual analysis tool Posit PBC™ for bibliometric analysis in Biblioshyni. The study answers key questions about the evolution of research in this field, the factors that determine the success of spin-offs and the suggested horizon for Colombia in comparison with global trends. The results show a shift from an initial focus on the creation of spin-offs to an increasing attention on their performance and long-term sustainability. Internationally, research underlines the relevance of technology transfer, university-industry collaboration, and efficient management of technological resources as key factors for the success of these initiatives. In contrast, in Colombia, most studies focus on the institutional, cultural and regulatory aspects that facilitate the creation of spin-offs, while the analysis of their performance after creation is less frequent

Studies on the influence of public policies on the regional tourism sector are of high scientific and practical interest, as they offer inputs to guide public management towards strengthening the tourism development of the territories. Through the structural equation model, this study took a sample 99 companies in the tourism sector in Valle del Cauca, Colombia, addressing the relationship between public policy management (PPM) and regional tourism development (RTD), from the perspective of the rational model of business performance. The findings show that the capacity of the state and its entities to comply with the requirements of the organizations, as well as the rigor to take criticism and suggestions for improvement, as a basis to strengthen their management, are the factors that best explain the relationship between the PPM and RTD based on the performance of organizations in the sector, especially focused on increasing market share, productivity, and income. Other findings and practical implications are discussed.

Este estudio, de carácter descriptivo, analiza los factores clave en la creación de spin-offs académicas, utilizando una perspectiva multiteórica que integra la Teoría de la Universidad Emprendedora, Teoría de la Acción Planificada y la Visión Basada en los Recursos. La metodología de este artículo se fundamenta en un posicionamiento epistemológico racionalista-idealista y se enmarca dentro de un paradigma de investigación interpretativista según Onwuegbuzie y Johnson (2021). Como resultado la Teoría de la Universidad Emprendedora, enfatiza la necesidad de un entorno universitario que promueva la cultura emprendedora y facilite la transferencia de tecnología al mercado. La Teoría de la Acción Planificada, explica la intención emprendedora, influenciada por actitudes, normas sociales y el control percibido, lo que afecta directamente la decisión de los académicos de crear spin-offs académicas. La Visión Basada en los Recursos, se enfoca en la importancia de los recursos internos valiosos, raros, inimitables y no sustituibles, esenciales para la creación de spin-offs. Este enfoque multiteórico permite identificar y evaluar cinco factores cruciales: Intención emprendedora, relaciones universidad-industria, transferencia tecnológica, financiación e incentivos. Se concluye que la adecuada gestión de estos factores, en alineación con las teorías analizadas, puede facilitar la creación de spin-offs académicas, promoviendo el desarrollo económico y social.

Between 2016 and 2024, the rapid development of emerging military technologies, such aslethal autonomous weapons, artificial intelligence applied to warfare, and cyber warfare, has posedsignificant challenges to International Humanitarian Law (IHL). This article critically analyzes the influenceof States, international organizations, and civil society in shaping the legal and ethical frameworksaddressing these issues. Using a qualitative, hermeneutic approach, it examines global actors’ discourses,principles, and regulatory proposals. The study identifies three key findings: (i) a critical normative gapconcerning autonomous systems and cyberconflicts; (ii) the need to reframe the notion of meaningfulhuman control as a substantive legal safeguard; and (iii) the reluctance of technologically advanced Statesto accept binding frameworks. The discussion highlights the role of civil society as a normative co-designerand proposes a more inclusive, anticipatory, and adaptive global governance. Finally, the article providesrecommendations to strengthen multilateral spaces, define clear principles, and promote proactive, ethical,and effective regulation of emerging military technologies.

This study examines how entrepreneurial intention (EI) influences the creation of academic spin-offs (ASOs) through the parallel mediation of incentives (IC) and funding (FZ). The proposed model integrates the Theory of Planned Behavior, the Resource-Based View, and the Entrepreneurial University framework. The empirical analysis is based on a sample of 100 A1 research groups from accredited Colombian public universities. The analysis was conducted using structural equation modeling with the partial least squares (PLS-SEM) approach. The result shows that EI does not have a direct effect on ASO creation. Instead, its influence is fully mediated by IC and FZ, confirming a total mediation (VAF = 99%). Incentives explain 61% of the indirect effect, with a large effect size (ν = 0.09), while funding explains 38%, with a moderate effect (ν = 0.038). The main contributions of this study are twofold: (1) it validates a full parallel mediation model in emerging contexts, and (2) it provides practical implications for public universities, such as strengthening financial and non-financial incentive structures, fostering mentoring networks, and promoting innovative funding mechanisms to support academic spin-offs.

This research examines the impact of Revolution 4.0 on International Law and arms regulation, particularly in the period 2016-2024, through a critical and socio-legal approach, it analyzes the challenges imposed on International Humanitarian Law (IHL) by new technologies applied to armed conflicts, such as autonomous weapons systems (AWS), artificial intelligence (AI) and cyberwarfare. These innovations have reshaped the modern battlefield, posing serious challenges to the application of fundamental principles such as distinction, proportionality and precaution, the study starts from the recognition of a normative gap that hinders the attribution of state responsibility and meaningful human control, especially in scenarios where war decisions are automated, likewise, the role of states, international organizations and civil society in the construction of effective regulatory frameworks is examined; The methodology used combines normative-dogmatic, comparative-legal and philosophical-legal methods, supported by analysis of recent cases and specialized literature; the project aims not only to identify the normative transformations driven by the technological revolution, but also to propose guidelines to ensure respect for IHL in contexts of digitalized warfare, this research contributes to the reflection on the need to adapt international law to the dizzying changes of the XXI century, reaffirming the imperative of protecting civilian populations in the use of emerging war technologies.

In conclusion, this paper explores the intricate dynamics of improper omission as an amplifying device within the Colombian legal context. A detailed analysis has demonstrated how improper omission allows the imputation and punishment of individuals who, without fulfilling the typical description of conduct, incur criminal liability when they abandon their role as guarantors in the absence of a nexus of avoidability. This occurs when they fail to prevent the typical results that, in the context of legal assets in their charge, the perpetrator can update their conduct, but refuses to do so without sufficient justification. It is crucial to differentiate between the general clause of equivalence of improper omission and the special clause of equivalence. While the former pertains to all legal assets, the latter is limited to specific legal assets mentioned in Article 25 of the Criminal Code. This distinction is vital to guarantee coherence and proportionality in the application of criminal law, thus preventing potential arbitrariness and violations of fundamental rights while enabling effective protection of positive duties of protection of legal rights with criminal protection. In particular, the issue of extending the position of guarantor to the protection of legal interests beyond those contemplated in the first paragraph of Article 25 of the Criminal Code has been addressed. By means of practical examples and analyses of case law, it has been demonstrated how improper omission can be constituted in a variety of contexts, including situations in which typical behaviors may arise as a result of the negligence or eventual inaction of an individual, whereby the individual in question removes himself from the protection of the legal assets in his control, which he has assumed voluntarily, so that an omission is constituted without sufficient justification. In conclusion, the clarification of the concepts presented here will contribute to the ongoing academic and legal discourse on improper omission in Colombia. It will provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of its application and implications within the country's legal framework. Through rigorous and thoughtful analysis, we encourage continued exploration and debate on this complex issue, with the aim of enhancing and strengthening the administration of justice in Colombia.

Academic entrepreneurship and the formation of spin-offs from educational institutions have been consolidated as essential elements to promote innovation and stimulate economic growth worldwide. However, the evolution of these initiatives shows marked differences between developed countries and emerging economies, such as Colombia. This study focuses on analyzing how research in this area has progressed, identifying the key factors that determine the success of spin-offs and suggesting a framework for action for Colombia in comparison with international dynamics. The findings reveal a shift in research attention from prioritizing the creation of spin-offs to a greater focus on their long-term performance and sustainability. At the international level, the relevance of technology transfer, strategic alliances between universities and industry and the efficient management of technological resources are highlighted. On the other hand, in the Colombian context, research tends to focus on institutional aspects, cultural factors and support regulations, underestimating the analysis of the performance of spin-offs after their creation. This paper aims to contribute to the formulation of policies and strategies that promote not only the emergence but also the sustainability of academic spin-offs in Colombia, seeking to align their practices with international standards in order to maximize their impact on the economic and social development of the country.