Broderick James McDonald

This CETaS Research Report investigates the role that AI information threats play during and following crisis events, as well as their potential impact on democratic stability. It also explores the systemic risks of AI tools becoming increasingly embedded into communication infrastructures during crisis scenarios. From the Southport riots in 2024 to the Israel-Iran conflict in 2025, a series of major recent crisis events have highlighted the damage that a polluted online information ecosystem can cause to public safety and national security. Yet despite significant focus on traditional mis/disinformation activities in these contexts, there is a gap in research exploring how AI tools could be exploited to worsen these dynamics, and contribute to real-world harm. Based on analysis of recent case studies, interviews with 25 cross-sector experts, and a tabletop exercise that simulated the role of AI information threats during a major security incident, this report systematically explores the evidence base on these threats. It also makes a series of recommendations to ensure that, in the future, AI tools contribute to democratic resilience – rather than instability. This publication is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 which permits unrestricted use, provided the original authors and source are credited.

This chapter investigates how terrorist and extremist actors have begun to exploit immersive technologies – including virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), mixed reality (MR), and metaverse platforms – for propaganda, recruitment, training, and operational planning. Noting the early development stage of these tools and their adoption, we trace the development of immersive technologies, examine the misuse of these environments by terrorist and extremist actors, and suggest new approaches which can help prepare for emerging threats. In the first section, immersive technologies are situated by tracing the emergence of scholarly and policy interest in VR/AR/MR and metaverse spaces and critically assessing whether the field has been ‘overhyped’ despite significant investment. We then outline empirical developments by examining documented cases and patterns of how terrorist and extremist actors have already engaged with VR/AR/MR and metaverse platforms. Finally, we assess plausible future misuse and examine governance challenges likely to emerge over the near-to-medium term.