Chiara Palazzolo

This article investigates the ethical requirements and features that characterize the professional life of successful contemporary classical orchestras, with particular focus on the leadership style of their conductors. As we will show, the traditional authoritarian approach, marked by the conductor’s commanding charisma and strict demand for obedience from orchestra members, has evolved today into a more ethically-based transformational style of leadership. This new approach is rooted in principles of respect, voluntary compliance, and trust. The present paper delves into the interpersonal dynamics within contemporary orchestras, focusing specifically on the character traits required to establish trust and collaboration between the conductor and the orchestra members, as well as among the orchestra members themselves. In particular, drawing from recent research in psychology, we underscore the significance of deference, empathy, and shared commitment toward the common goal of excellence in performance. We conclude that the ethics-centered style of leadership adopted by most contemporary conductors may extend beyond the realm of music, offering insights applicable to leaders in various other fields. By fostering deep connections, shared purpose, and collaboration, this approach has the potential to enhance organizational performance and outcomes in general.

Although forgiveness and reconciliation are not explicit goals of restorative justice (Zehr, 2015), the latter nonetheless provides a privileged space for their cultivation (Blad, 2013; Zehr, 2015). In this article, I argue that forgiveness can be conceived as a moral virtue, manifested in the suspension of blame, the deliberate choice to overcome the harm suffered, and the commitment to repair relationships. From this perspective, forgiveness emerges as both a valuable outcome and a crucial ally of restorative justice, as both are oriented toward the reconstruction of damaged relationships. The concepts of moral repair, reconciliation, and, more specifically, forgiveness as a moral virtue are examined through the lens of virtue ethics and moral psychology, showing how this approach to forgiveness can be coherently integrated within the restorative paradigm, highlighting its theoretical and practical benefits. In this framework, forgiveness is presented as a distinct form of ethical engagement and relational responsibility, whose exercise requires genuine openness to the other—a condition essential for achieving true justice. In this context, forgiveness is not only compatible with restorative justice but also finds in it a fertile ground for cultivating this virtue.

What is the future of classical music? The outlook appears bleak; without concerted intervention, there may be very few people left to either perform or appreciate it in the near future. What actions can be taken, and who should spearhead them? While governmental and cultural institutions are expected to do their part by allocating resources for classical music education and performances, this paper argues that performers, as cultural agents, also have a pivotal role to play in preserving a practice with profound cultural and societal significance. Therefore, beyond their technical and musical prowess, musicians must also cultivate additional skills, including critical and reflective capabilities. This reimagining of the performer's role necessitates a broader ethical reassessment of classical music as a professional pursuit. Over centuries, music has evolved from mere craftsmanship to a refined art form. Now, it stands at a juncture where it must redefine itself as a cultural profession to reclaim its relevance in contemporary and future societies. The survival of classical music rests on its ability to make this shift.

This article addresses the inherently relational nature of musical agency, drawing upon interdisciplinary research. It argues that music does not exist in isolation but within social and emotional contexts shaped by a network of relationships among musicians. These interactions create a collaborative space that transcends mere technical execution, fostering a collective experience enriched by shared sensitivity and emotional engagement. Consequently, musical practice, whether compositional or performative, entails a moral responsibility, particularly challenging the perspectives of Levinas; Bauman; and Wilde, who traditionally separated art from ethics. As outlined in Nielsen and Cobussen’s work “music contributes to a better understanding of one’s place within the world, and thus, to an ethical sensibility”, emphasizing how musical practice cultivates ethical awareness through its relational nature. Music is thus conceived as a moral endeavor, where care extends not only to the music itself but also to the individuals involved in its creation and performance. Moreover, this moral responsibility extends to future generations, as musical tradition is conceived as a temporal bridge linking the past, the present, and the future. The tradition is composed of individuals actively engaged in the practices that shape the tradition or traditions. Musicians bear an intergenerational responsibility toward those who will inherit and reinterpret current practices—a responsibility not grounded in direct reciprocity, but in what Randall describes as “conceptual ties”. The continuity of musical tradition and its aesthetic value depend on the care and responsibility each generation shows toward both the participants and the evolving cultural products of this process. Thus, the discussion elucidates the ethical dimensions of musical agency and practice, particularly in Western classical music, and highlights how our obligations to future generations are intrinsic to the practice itself, thereby contributing to broader debates on intergenerational care ethics.

ABSTRACT This article examines the ethical foundations within classical music performance. It argues that phronesis (practical wisdom) is crucial in navigating the ethical challenges faced by musicians, addressing the tension between distinct normative constraints as well as enhancing musicians’ ethical awareness and decision-making in their practice. Among these ethical concerns is the responsibility to balance respecting the work’s integrity and pursuing originality. On these grounds, we argue further that phronesis serves a broader function, enabling musicians to fulfil effectively their role responsibility to composers, peers, and audiences.

Creativity is often perceived as “extra-moral” existing outside the realm of moral virtues and within aesthetics. However, creativity is also connected to ethics and extends beyond the domain of art. Many philosophers consider creativity as an intrinsically valuable character trait or virtue (Kieran 2014; Zagzebski 1996; Swanton, 2022). Other scholars, including Reilly et al. (2022) and Qin Li and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (2014) emphasize the moral foundation of creativity in professions such as science and art. They contend that professional ethics, as tied to one’s specific role, reveal the significant impact creativity has on society—especially on future generations—by shaping behavior, thought, and cultural development. The widespread recognition of influential figures such as Albert Einstein, Wolfgang A. Mozart, and others reflects society’s esteem for creativity and intellectual brilliance. These individuals exemplify the height of human adaptability and achievement, demonstrating the profound influence of creative genius on social advancement (Simonton 1994). Examining the moral perspectives of undeniably creative individuals—both individually and collectively—further illuminates the intricate relationship between world-shaping creativity and the domain of moral responsibility. In this sense, creativity can be considered not only a virtue of character but also a collective virtue, insofar as in some professional domains, creativity is employed as a collaborative enterprise. Moreover, it emphasizes that creative professionals exhibit a sense of moral purpose not only within their specific domains—such as orchestras and ensembles—but also in relation to the broader community they serve, thereby reflecting a sense of responsibility toward their audience (Reilly et al. 2022). This challenges the assumption that artistic professions are exempt from moral obligations. Creativity, in this light, may be conceived as both an individual and collective virtue, offering valuable insights through the example of ethically responsible creative agents.

The article addresses the decline in classical music audiences, particularly among younger generations, and proposes strategies for its revival. Despite a global decrease in listenership, classical music remains an intangible cultural heritage of immense significance, whose preservation constitutes a moral duty. Ensuring its transmission to future generations demands a nuanced balance between conservation and innovation. The first section considers three key aspects: (1) UNESCO’s 2003 Convention (2018a) recognizes music as an essential component of cultural heritage that requires protection; (2) classical music shapes cultural identity through notation and tradition, underscoring the need to safeguard both its texts and modes of transmission; (3) according to Samuel Scheffler (2010), it is future generations that confer meaning upon present practices, making the transmission of classical music both a duty to the past and a responsibility toward the future. The second section examines the role of the music industry in sustaining classical music. The article argues that its decline is not inevitable, but rather a challenge that can be met through collective responsibility, with audience development and innovation playing a crucial role in securing its future.

The article addresses the decline in classical music audiences, particularly among younger generations, and proposes strategies for its revival. Despite a global decrease in listenership, classical music remains an intangible cultural heritage of immense significance, whose preservation constitutes a moral duty. Ensuring its transmission to future generations demands a nuanced balance between conservation and innovation. The first section considers three key aspects: (1) UNESCO’s 2003 Convention (2018a) recognizes music as an essential component of cultural heritage that requires protection; (2) classical music shapes cultural identity through notation and tradition, underscoring the need to safeguard both its texts and modes of transmission; (3) according to Samuel Scheffler (2010), it is future generations that confer meaning upon present practices, making the transmission of classical music both a duty to the past and a responsibility toward the future. The second section examines the role of the music industry in sustaining classical music. The article argues that its decline is not inevitable, but rather a challenge that can be met through collective responsibility, with audience development and innovation playing a crucial role in securing its future.

The article examines the relationship between evil, freedom, and divine necessity in Schelling’s Philosophical Investigations into the Essence of Human Freedom, and how Schelling’s ideas seem to echo in Harry Frankfurt’s contemporary theory of moral responsibility. Schelling’s concept of evil arises from the ground of existence, revealing an intrinsic duality in which God requires an opposing principle (evil) for His self-revelation. Schelling denies that God can be the author of evil, instead locating its origin in human free will. This analysis draws a parallel between Schelling’s claim that evil is necessary for God’s revelation and Frankfurt’s rejection of the principle of alternative possibilities, arguing that moral responsibility does not require the ability to act otherwise. The article critically examines Schelling’s stance on the compatibility between necessity and freedom, focusing on the theological and metaphysical implications of felix culpa, which transforms human sin into a necessary condition for divine grace. By linking Schelling’s notion of freedom within necessity to Frankfurt’s compatibilist theory of moral responsibility, this article not only sheds light on Schelling’s position but also connects classical metaphysical concerns surrounding theodicy and free will with more contemporary issues, showing how these themes remain relevant in modern ethical debates, albeit through different conceptual frameworks.

In contemporary virtue ethics, virtues are often assimilated to skills. This assimilation suggests that the moral knowledge of virtuous individuals parallels the practical knowledge of experts in a particular skill. According to Julia Annas (2011a, 2011b), virtues function as skills requiring the ability to articulate reasons for one’s actions. These skills are developed through habitual practice over time. For example, a pianist who internalizes piano techniques possesses practical expertise akin to someone who understands their actions, even when performed automatically. Annas argues that to cultivate ethical virtue, we should emulate musical action, viewing it as a habit rather than mere repetition. This analogy aids in understanding virtue acquisition as practical skill-building. Expanding on Annas’s insights, this article contends that musical practice offers profound ethical implications for musicians as potential moral agents. Supported by important neurological and psychological studies on musical expertise, as well as the dynamics of classical music interpretation and professional career development, this argument sheds light on the ethical dimensions of musical agency. These insights into musical expertise could enhance our understanding of ethical expertise overall.

The aim of the article is to illuminate the idea that humility – understood as self-knowledge and a relational virtue in the Thomistic sense – is essential for professional excellence in music. The article begins by examining contemporary interpretations of humility and then refers to the conceptions of Augustine and Thomas Aquinas. It argues that 1) Aquinas’s conception of humility aligns well with current understandings of humility among professional musicians in Western classical music; 2) humility can be considered a role-specific virtue in music; and 3) high-level musical practice serves as a form of training in the virtue of humility. The article then draws on studies by social scientists and testimonies from professional musicians and conductors to explore how humility is manifested and actualized in music, particularly concerning self-knowledge and excellence.

This article investigates the ethical requirements and features that characterize the professional life of successful contemporary classical orchestras, with particular focus on the leadership style of their conductors. As we will show, the traditional authoritarian approach, marked by the conductor’s commanding charisma and strict demand for obedience from orchestra members, has evolved today into a more ethically-based transformational style of leadership. This new approach is rooted in principles of respect, voluntary compliance, and trust. The present paper delves into the interpersonal dynamics within contemporary orchestras, focusing specifically on the character traits required to establish trust and collaboration between the conductor and the orchestra members, as well as among the orchestra members themselves. In particular, drawing from recent research in psychology, we underscore the significance of deference, empathy, and shared commitment toward the common goal of excellence in performance. We conclude that the ethics-centered style of leadership adopted by most contemporary conductors may extend beyond the realm of music, offering insights applicable to leaders in various other fields. By fostering deep connections, shared purpose, and collaboration, this approach has the potential to enhance organizational performance and outcomes in general.

The article examines the ethics of musical interpretation, focusing on the performer’s responsibility in faithfully recreating a work from the score. Drawing inspiration from conductor Daniel Barenboim’s reflections (2016), it analyzes the delicate balance between personal expression and fidelity to the work, highlighting how interpretation involves not only technical skill but also moral responsibility. This notion develops through the importance attributed to history, authenticity, and the present in interpretation. These concepts are explored in the relationship between the score and the performer, addressing the ethical challenges involved in balancing fidelity and creativity. The study of Historically Informed Performance (HIP) demonstrates how it serves as the foundation of the ethics of musical interpretation, due to its attempt to recreate the original conditions of performances. However, it is also noted that HIP embodies an overly rigid fidelity, thus requiring a more balanced approach that views musical practice as an ongoing dialogue between past and present. Finally, since the rules of musical practice are not enough for performers to interpret ethically, as they need to be internalized, the role of Aristotelian phronesis is explored as an internal guide for performers in interpretative practice. Phronesis aids the performer in mediating between past and present and in making interpretative decisions that are both ethically and musically appropriate.

This article examines the ethical foundations within classical music performance. It argues that phronesis (practical wisdom) is crucial in navigating the ethical challenges faced by musicians, addressing the tension between distinct normative constraints as well as enhancing musicians’ ethical awareness and decision-making in their practice. Among these ethical concerns is the responsibility to balance respecting the work’s integrity and pursuing originality. On these grounds, we argue further that phronesis serves a broader function, enabling musicians to fulfil effectively their role responsibility to composers, peers, and audiences.