Cuizhu Wang

This chapter has the goal of advocating for the Quadratic Scoring Rule as the indispensable tool in the operationalization of one of the most popular concepts of social norms in the literature. Section 1 reviews the concept of social norms developed by Bicchieri (2006, 2017) and argues that this theory offers an operational definition of social norms which focuses on beliefs (expectations) and preferences and allows for the possibility of their empirical investigation. Section 2 introduces the well-known Intentional Stance and Revealed Preference Theory as the best interpretive framework for the intentional concepts applied in Bicchieri’s conceptual analysis of social norms. On the basis of limitations arising from experimental work operating Bicchieri’s theory, section 3 introduces and defends the Quadratic Scoring Rule (QSR) for eliciting subjective belief distributions. Three different types of arguments are given to support the suitability of this method in the measuring of social norms.

Cristina Bicchieri’s theory of social norms is one of the most influential frameworks for diagnosing and measuring norms in behavioural science. Yet its application and experimental practice has revealed conceptual ambiguities and inconsistent operationalisation. This paper offers conceptual clarifications aiming at methodological extensions of Bicchieri’s account while remaining largely compatible with the framework. I argue that three aspects of her theory require clarification for effective use in economics: (i) the co-existence of four distinct kinds of social beliefs (first- and second-order, descriptive and normative), (ii) the notion of belief consistency, which should be understood in statistical terms, and (iii) the alignment of reference networks as a condition for norm identification. Refining these aspects provides both improved conceptual clarification and practical guidance for experimental operationalisation. By bridging philosophical analysis with methodological considerations, the paper strengthens the foundations for using Bicchieri’s framework to identify and model social norms in economics and the social sciences.

This paper reflects mainly on three ideas of “political Ruism” in modern China. We first review Mou Zongsan’s idea of “selfnegation of innate moral consciousness良知坎陷,” which embraces universal values and tries to bridge them with Chinese culture. We then re-examine Jiang Qing’s “political Confucianism,” which, while criticizing universal values, attempts to establish a political system based on the Kingly Way. Finally, we discuss the “Kang Youwei-ism康有为主义”, which calls on us to return to Kang Youwei’s idea of state construction and national construction. The three ideas offer some new perspectives into Confucianism, but all turn out unrealistic and unpragmatic. We believe that Confucianism in modern China can still work in both the private sphere and the public sphere, and examine politics from a human, cultural or moral perspective.