David Hommen

As part of her seminal work on models and analogies in science, Hesse develops a general ‘network theory’ of meaning in which she posits that all language (both natural and scientific) is fundamentally metaphorical. Drawing on Wittgenstein’s theory of family resemblance, she claims that the application of any concept to a novel case is based on the tacit perception of complex similarities between the new case and cases already subsumed under the concept in question, and thus amounts to a metaphorical transfer of that concept to the novel case. In this chapter, it will be argued that Hesse’s resulting theory of scientific inference lapses into anti-realism, as Hesse regards the similarities based on which all descriptive concepts are applied not as objective features of the world, but as dependent on social or anthropological factors. In contrast, it will be shown that Wittgenstein’s original theory of meaning already makes room for a genuine epistemic access to objective resemblances in the world—one which is established through direct, practically embodied acquaintances of the cognitive agent with such resemblances. Wittgenstein’s overall theory thus proves to be more realist than Hesse appreciates in her own interpretation and application of it, and thus helps to redeem the realist program of Hesse’s approach.

Modeling is an important scientific method of representing and understanding real world phenomena. Models provide idealized representations of their target systems in the sense that their description of those targets is intentionally inaccurate. However, given that science strives for correct knowledge about the world, the idealized nature of models raises an epistemological conundrum: How can one learn something true about real-world phenomena by studying models of them that are knowingly false? A modeling stance in science seems either epistemologically deficient or contrary to the realist aim of science. In this paper, Wittgenstein’s method of aesthetic description is proposed as an alternative approach to scientific modeling that steers clear of the dilemma between epistemic futility and antirealism. Aesthetic descriptions explain perplexing phenomena by analogy with familiar objects or events, thus evoking a poetic understanding of these phenomena that defies conventional articulation and ultimately consists in a direct acquaintance with the phenomena themselves. From this, an aesthetic view of models is developed that can both sustain a realist stance toward science and explain why models are epistemically valuable. It also implies, however, a peculiar kind of scientific knowledge: one which is partly implicit and in a certain sense ineffable.

In ‘Universals and Family Resemblances’, Renford Bambrough claims that Ludwig Wittgenstein's conception of family resemblance solves the problem of universals. Bambrough's analysis has attracted a number of criticisms, including (i) that his exposition of the problem of universals is ill-conceived, (ii) that he overgeneralizes Wittgenstein's claims about family resemblance and (iii) that his reconstruction of Wittgensteinian family resemblance fails as a solution to the problem of universals. In this paper, I revisit Bambrough's account in light of these objections. I try to show that, despite its shortcomings, Bambrough presents a viable approach to the problem of universals that also seems to match Wittgenstein's original view—which is, quite surprisingly, committed to an essentialist framework of sorts and propagates a tacit form of knowledge of the subsumption principles of general terms.

Der Anomale Monismus ist eine vom amerikanischen Philosophen Donald H. Davidson entwickelte und vertretene Position inder Philosophie des Geistes. Sie ist durch zwei zentrale Thesen charakterisiert: 1. Mentale Ereignisse, die mit physischenEreignissen kausal interagieren, sind selbst physische Ereignisse (psychophysischer Monismus); 2. Es gibt keine striktenpsychophysischen Gesetze (Mentaler Anomalismus). Die Theorie des Anomalen Monismus stellt einen Versuch dar, dasProblem der mentalen Verursachung zu lösen, das sich für Davidson aus der anscheinenden Unvereinbarkeit des Prinzips derkausalen Interaktion mentaler und physischer Ereignisse mit den Prinzipien des nomologischen Charakters der Kausalität undder Anomalie des Mentalen ergibt.

In this essay, I shall defend a transcendental argument for epistemological realism: the view that mind-independent yet cognitively accessible entities exist. The proposed argument reasons from the fact that we are conceptual creatures to the existence of a knowable outer world as a condition of the possibility of such creatures. I first lay down my general approach to concepts and conceptualization, according to which concepts are rules that agents follow in their cognitive activities. I go on to explicate the peculiar normative nature of rules and rule-following, from which I extract, following Wittgensteinian considerations, an intractable problem for any idealist account of concept possession. I argue that the very possibility of conceptualizing requires the existence of external objects that enable the cognizer to regulate their use of concepts, and close with some remarks on the resultant nature and scope of metaphysical knowledge.

The later Wittgenstein famously holds that an understanding which tries to run up against the limits of language bumps itself and results in nothing but plain nonsense. Therefore, the task of philosophy cannot be to create an ‘ideal’ language so as to produce a ‘real’ understanding for the first time; its aim must be to remove particular misunderstandings by clarifying the use of our ordinary language. Accordingly, Wittgenstein opposes both the sublime terms of traditional philosophy and the formal frameworks of modern logics—and adheres to a pointedly casual, colloquial style in his own philosophizing. However, there seems to lurk a certain inconsistency in Wittgenstein’s ordinary language approach: his philosophical remarks frequently remain enigmatic, and many of the terms Wittgenstein coins seem to be highly technical. Thus, one might wonder whether his verdicts on the limits of language and on philosophical jargons might not be turned against his own practice. The present essay probes the extent to which the contravening tendencies in Wittgenstein’s mature philosophy might be reconciled. Section 2 sketches Wittgenstein’s general approach to philosophy and tracks the special rôle that the language of everyday life occupies therein. Section 3 reconstructs Wittgenstein’s preferred method for philosophy, which he calls perspicuous representation, and argues that this method implements an aesthetic conception of philosophy and a poetic approach to philosophical language, in which philosophical insights are not explicitly stated, but mediated through well-worded and creatively composed descriptions. Section 4 discusses how Wittgenstein’s philosophical poetics relates to artificial terminologies and grammars in philosophy and science.

In his theory of categories, Aristotle introduces a distinction between two types of universals, i.e., kinds and attributes. While attributes determine how their subjects are, kinds determine what something is: kinds represent unified ways of being which account for the existence and identity of particular objects. Since its introduction into the philosophical discussion, the concept of a kind has attracted criticism. The most important objection argues that no separate category of kinds is needed because all kinds can be reduced to conjunctions of ordinary attributes. The present paper explores one possible response to this reductionist challenge on behalf of the Aristotelian—one which takes issue with the view that conjunctive properties license a reduction of kinds to attributes. The aim of this exploration is not only to defend an Aristotelian doctrine of kinds—i.e., to convey a better understanding of why we actually need an irreducible category of kinds—but also to define the Aristotelian position more precisely; i.e., to shed more light on the concept of kinds and the very the idea of kindhood.

In this paper, I assess the ontological commitments of frame-based methods of knowledge representation. Frames decompose concepts into recursive attribute-value structures. Attributes are the general aspects by which a category or individual is described; their values are more or less specific properties that are assigned to the referential object. The question is: are these properties to be interpreted as universals or as tropes? Some trope theorists allege that an interpretation in terms of universals is incompatible with frames for individuals in which the values of quality attributes are recursively specified by further attributes. I shall argue, however, that recursive extension poses a challenge, not specifically to the universals realist, but rather to realists about determinables as opposed to determinables nominalists. Moreover, it is suggested that even determinables realists are able to cope with recursively extended frames once they relativize relations between determinables and determinates to particular objects. It is indicated how these findings might bear on adjacent debates in the metaphysics of natural language.

The later Wittgenstein famously holds that an understanding which tries to run up against the limits of language bumps itself and results in nothing but plain nonsense. Therefore, the task of philosophy cannot be to create an ‘ideal’ language so as to produce a ‘real’ understanding in the first place; its aim must be to remove particular misunderstandings by clarifying the use of our ordinary language. Accordingly, Wittgenstein opposes both the sublime terms of traditional philosophy and the formal frameworks of modern logics---and adheres to a pointedly casual, colloquial style in his own philosophizing. However, there seems to lurk a certain inconsistency in Wittgenstein’s ordinary language approach: his philosophical remarks frequently remain enigmatic, and many of the terms Wittgenstein coins appear to be highly technical. Thus, one might wonder whether his verdicts on the limits of language and on philosophical jargons might not be turned against his own practice. The present essay probes the extent to which the contravening tendencies in Wittgenstein’s mature philosophy might be reconciled. Section 2 sketches Wittgenstein’s general approach to philosophy and tracks the special role that the language of everyday life occupies therein. Section 3 reconstructs Wittgenstein’s preferred method for philosophy, which he calls perspicuous representation, and argues that this method implements an aesthetic conception of philosophy and a poetic approach to philosophical language, in which philosophical insights are not explicitly stated, but mediated through well-worded and creatively composed descriptions. Section 4 discusses how Wittgenstein’s philosophical poetics relates to artificial terminologies and grammars in philosophy and science.

The nature of intuitions remains a contested issue in philosophy. Yet, intuitions are frequently cited in philosophical work, featuring most prominently in conceptual analysis, the philosophical method par excellence. In this paper, we approach the question about the nature of intuitions based on a pragmatist, namely, Wittgensteinian account of concepts. To Wittgenstein, intuitions are just immediate ‘reactions’ to certain cognitive tasks. His view provides a distinct alternative to identifying intuitions with either doxastic states or quasi-perceptual experiences. We discuss its implications for intuitions’ role in conceptual analysis and show that a Wittgensteinian account of intuitions is compatible even with ambitious metaphysical projects traditionally associated with this method.

In his theory of categories, Aristotle introduces a distinction between two types of universals, i.e., kinds and attributes. While attributes determine how their subjects are, kinds determine what something is: kinds represent unified ways of being which account for the existence and identity of particular objects. Since its introduction into the philosophical discussion, the concept of a kind has attracted criticism. The most important objection argues that no separate category of kinds is needed because all kinds can be reduced to conjunctions of ordinary attributes. The present paper explores one possible response to this reductionist challenge on behalf of the Aristotelian—one which takes issue with the view that conjunctive properties license a reduction of kinds to attributes. The aim of this exploration is not only to defend an Aristotelian doctrine of kinds—i.e., to convey a better understanding of why we actually need an irreducible category of kinds—but also to define the Aristotelian position more precisely; i.e., to shed more light on the concept of kinds and the very the idea of kindhood.

Few philosophers believe in the existence of so-called negative properties. Indeed, many find it mind-boggling just to imagine such entities. By contrast, I believe not only that negative properties are quite conceivable, but also that there are good reasons for thinking that some such properties actually exist. In this paper, I would like to explicate a concept of negative properties which I think avoids the logical absurdities commonly believed to frustrate theories of negative existences. To do this, I shall deploy a conceptual approach to ontology: I first evaluate the ontological commitments of ordinary negative statements, before I argue that, from the perspective of conceptual analysis, negative properties are no more suspicious than positive properties. In the second part of this paper, I probe the extent to which one can explain the distinction between positive and negative properties in terms of facts about logico-semantical entailment.

Die Annahme, dass mentale Zustände wie Überzeugungen, Wünsche und Gefühle physische Ereignisse bewirken (wie körperliches Verhalten und willentliche Handlungen) ist ebenso verbreitet wie problematisch, weil sie im Widerspruch zu der Überzeugung steht, dass mentale Zustände Phänomene nicht-physischer Natur sind und physische Phänomene ausschließlich physische Ursachen haben. Der Epiphänomenalismus, der diesen als Leib-Seele-Problem bekannten Widerspruch auflöst, indem er die kausale Wirksamkeit des Mentalen bestreitet, stößt unter Laien und Philosophen jedoch auf erheblichen Widerstand. Die vorliegende Studie wendet sich den Intuitionen zu, die sich einer epiphänomenalistischen Auflösung des Leib-Seele-Problems in den Weg stellen: einerseits die innere Erfahrung unserer Urheberschaft, andererseits unser Selbstverständnis als handelnde Personen. Es wird argumentiert, dass die durch die Berufung auf diese Intuitionen zum Ausdruck gebrachten, selten jedoch ausdrücklich vorgebrachten Argumente für die These der mentalen Kausalität allesamt nicht überzeugen können. Vielmehr ist der Epiphänomenalismus sowohl mit unserer inneren als auch unserer äußeren Lebenswirklichkeit vereinbar.

The theory of frames has recently been proposed as a universal format for knowledge representation in language, cognition and science. Frames represent categories as well as individual objects and events in terms of recursive attribute-value structures. In this paper, we would like to explore the potential ontological commitments of frame-based knowledge representations, with particular emphasis on the ontological status of the possessors of quality attributes in individual object frames. While not strictly incompatible with nominalistic, bundle- or substratum-theoretic approaches to the metaphysics of particular objects, it will be argued that representing objects in terms of attribute-value structures is more in accordance with a tradition that can be traced back to Aristotle’s doctrine of physical substances. Attributes appear to describe primary potentialities of objects, which, in the Aristotelian view, are the unchangeable nature or essence, hence substance, of any separate object.

In der Psychotherapie kommt dem Patientengespräch eine besondere Bedeutung zu, weil es nicht nur die medizinische Intervention vorbereitet und begleitet, sondern selbst Instrument der Behandlung ist. Zugleich zielt die Therapie auf das, was aufs Engste mit der Persönlichkeit und Identität eines Individuums zusammenhängt: den Geist einer Person. Neben spezifischen ethischen Problemen, die sich damit offensichtlich für die psychotherapeutische Praxis ergeben, stellen sich auch grundlegende anthropologische Fragen danach, was sprachliches Geistheilen zuallererst möglich macht, Fragen nach der Natur des Geistes und seinem Verhältnis zur Sprache. Beiden Aspekten möchte ich mich in diesem Beitrag aus einer erkenntnistheoretischen Perspektive nähern. Dabei gehe ich von der Feststellung aus, dass das Kernelement jeder Psychotherapie ein Vorgang des Erklärens ist, der im Wesentlichen nach den Mustern der Alltagspsychologie verfährt. Ich möchte versuchen zu zeigen, dass sich diese Art des Erklärens wesentlich von der Art der Erklärungen unterscheidet, die in anderen medizinischen Kontexten zum Einsatz kommen. In ihrem Zentrum steht die konzeptionelle Beziehung zwischen mentalen Zuständen und dem, was Individuen in ihrem Verhalten – insbesondere sprachlich – zum Ausdruck bringen können. Es wird gezeigt, wie der Psychotherapeut durch das Aufzeigen sprachlicher Artikulations- und (Um-)Deutungsmöglichkeiten einem Betroffenen helfen kann, als problematisch erlebte Situationen anders wahrzunehmen, neu zu bewerten und besser mit ihnen umzugehen. Die Perspektive des Therapeuten ist dabei nicht die des unbeteiligten Beobachters, sondern die eines mit dem Patienten in einer gemeinsamen Lebensform verbundenen Co-Subjekts. Psychotherapie lässt sich daher nicht nach Kriterien theoretischer Adäquatheit beurteilen, sondern allenfalls ethisch hinterfragen.

There are striking similarities in the ways philosophers use to speak about concepts and properties. For example, it is commonly said that concepts and properties are ‘predicated’ of things – which, in turn, are said to ‘exemplify’ those concepts or properties. Concepts as well as properties are assumed to have ‘instances’ and ‘extensions’ and to be the semantical values of adjectives like ‘red,’ ‘round,’ and so on. Even metaphysically, concepts and properties seem to have much in common. Thus, both have been characterized as universals capable of having multiple instances. In this essay, I would like to explore the conspicuous interrelations between concepts and properties from the viewpoint of a pragmatist approach which aims to explain phenomena of mind and meaning in terms of the actions and practices of (social) beings. To this end, I shall discuss the probably most influential development of this program, namely Wittgenstein’s theory of meaning as use, and probe the extent to which this theory is capable of illuminating the ontological nexus between concepts and properties.

This paper starts with the presentation of an Aristotelian theory of negative properties. Against this backdrop, it then asks whether there could be objects that have solely negative properties, i.e., completely negative objects. This possibility is entertained by Wittgenstein in his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. The notion of a completely negative object is compared to the concepts of a nonexistent object, a nonconcrete object, and a nonactual object. Ultimately, it is argued that there can be no completely negative objects, because all negative properties entail some positive properties.

In this paper, I shall assess the ontological commitments of frame-based methods of knowledge representation. Frames decompose concepts into recursive attribute-value structures. The question is: are the attribute values in frames to be interpreted as universal properties or rather as tropes? I shall argue that universals realism and trope theory face similar complications as far as non-terminal values, i.e., values which refer to the determinable properties of objects, are concerned. It is suggested that these complications can be overcome if one is prepared to adopt an ontology of structured complexes. Such an ontology, in turn, is indifferent as to whether attribute values are interpreted as universals or as tropes.

In this paper, I discuss Michael Moore’s and Jonathan Schaffer’s views on the ontology of omissions in context of their stances on the problem of omissive causation. First, I consider, from a general point of view, the question of the ontology of omissions, and how it relates to the problem of omissive causation. Then I describe Moore’s and Schaffer’s particular views on omissions and how they combine with their stances on the problem of omissive causation. I charge Moore and Schaffer with inconsistencies and insufficiencies within their overall theories, and consider their replies. Finally, I propose my own view on the ontology of omissions and solution to the problem of omissive causation