John Moses Chua

This paper argues that misinformation spreads not only because people believe false claims, but because false information can serve important social functions. First, I show that common approaches to misinformation focus too much on error and correction, and not enough on why falsehoods travel so effectively. Second, drawing on Miranda Fricker and José Medina, I argue that communication already takes place within unequal credibility relations, where some voices are trusted more than others. Third, using Elena Esposito’s idea of artificial communication, I show that communication can succeed through circulation, response, and coordination even without shared understanding. Bringing these together, I argue that misinformation works as a social solution: it helps people orient themselves, coordinate reactions, and affirm group belonging. This explains why correction alone often fails. Misinformation persists not simply because it is believed, but because it is socially functional under conditions of epistemic inequality and communicative systems organized around uptake rather than understanding.

This essay delves into the multifaceted nature of the Tagalog word ano, examining its usage in various contexts and its impact on communication within Tagalog-speaking communities. Three cases of ano are discussed in the essay. The first case pertains to ano accompanied by ostension; the second, pertains to ano accompanied by context clues; and the third, pertains to ano without any ostension or context. In Tagalog communities, ano, despite the lack of ostension or context, is sometimes still used in everyday conversations, presenting the problem of how meaning or understanding of the word ano is still possible. The third case of ano will be further divided into two: IT-ano (ibang tao-ano) and HIT-ano (hindi ibang tao-ano) providing the difference between strangers and acquaintances. By relying on Ludwig Wittgenstein’s idea of what it means to understand through language-game, this essay discusses how a vague word such as ano gives rise to meaning and understanding. This approach to clarify meaning will relate to the levels of social interaction found in Virgilio Enriquez’s idea of pakikipagkapwa. The analysis will proceed by referring to hypothetical scenarios involving the use of the term ano situated in the everyday conversational use of language by Filipinos. The mode of analysis takes the perspective of the author, who is a native speaker of Tagalog.

This research will argue about which theory of mind between Searle’s and Dennett’s can better explain human consciousness. Initially, distinctions between dualism and materialism will be discussed ranging from substance dualism, property dualism, physicalism, and functionalism. In this part, the main issue that is tackled in various theories of mind is revealed. It is the missing connection between input stimulus (neuronal reactions) and behavioral disposition: consciousness. Then, the discussion will be more specific on Searle’s biological naturalism and Dennett’s multiple drafts model as the two attempted to answer the issue. The differences between them will be highlighted and will be analyzed according to their relation to their roots: dualism and materialism. The two theories will be examined on how each answer the questions on consciousness.