Juan Rodriguez

Commencing in 1809 Schelling elaborated an explicit anarchist political philosophy based on the anthropological and individualistic elements of his newly developed metaphysics of finitude, evil, and human freedom. Notwithstanding the importance of those elements centered around the notions of a ‘particular will’ in 1809 and proper will and spirit in 1810, a direct presentation of Schelling’s critique of the State is yet scarce among Schelling scholars due to the fact that it presupposes a broader inquiry into his conception of nature and love in the much complex system of 1810. In what follows we will link both lines of investigation – namely Schelling’s anthropology and philosophy of Nature – to show the interconnections between (I) Schelling’s theory of inner unity of nature, (II) his new approach to the relation between God, nature, and man, and finally (III) how these two previous topics influence Schelling’s critique of the external form of unity he attributes to the State.

Despite abundant evidence associating CD38 overexpression and CD4 T cell depletion in HIV infection, no causal relation has been investigated. To address this issue, a series of mechanisms are proposed, supported by evidence from different fields, by which CD38 overexpression can facilitate CD4 T cell depletion in HIV infection. According to this model, increased catalytic activity of CD38 may reduce CD4 T cells’ cytoplasmic nicotin‐amide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), leading to a chronic Warburg effect. This will reduce mitochondrial function. Simultaneously, CD38's catalytic products ADPR and cADPR may be transported to the cytoplasm, where they can activate calcium channels and increase cytoplasmic Ca2+ concentrations, further altering mitochondrial integrity. These mechanisms will decrease the viability and regenerative capacity of CD4 T cells. These hypotheses can be tested experimentally, and might reveal novel therapeutic targets.

In recent years, the study of human evolution has made substantial advances—from major fossil and archaeological discoveries to breakthroughs in paleogenetics and analytical methods. Yet, does more data necessarily lead to better science? This volume challenges this assumption, arguing that advances in understanding human origins require critical reflection. Transforming scarce and incompete data into claims about the distant past demands also deeper insights into how such knowledge is constructed, validated, and questioned. Bringing together leading scholars from across disciplines, this volume examines the historical, philosophical, and epistemological foundations of human evolutionary research—from paleoanthropology and prehistoric archaeology to molecular anthropology and primatology. Rather than resolving long-standing debates, the authors illuminate the complexities behind them, encouraging a richer diversity of thought and method. Ideal for researchers, students, and readers in both the sciences and humanities, this book invites a deeper, more inclusive engagement with the human past.

In his work Bruno, Schelling elaborates for the first time a concept of freedom and independence of the finite that extends through his reformulation in Philosophy and Religion of 1804, to the Freedom Essay of 1809 and beyond to the works of 1810 and 1811—Stuttgart Private Lectures and The Ages of the World. The question we will address in this article—taking a necessary detour through Bruno themes—concerns the status of the finite as such and how it is at all possible to admit both the existence of a world of finite beings as it appears to consciousness and the positing of an Absolute and infinite principle of philosophy. We will show how Schelling’s interest shifts, almost unintentionally, from the infinite principle to the finite as such, as a principle of freedom and self-initiation independent of the real. The split opened by the duality of the two principles will continue in Philosophy and Religion of 1804 and will become more evident in the other works of the 1800s that are the subject of our broader philosophical interest. In analyzing Bruno, we fill for the first time a major existing gap in Schelling’s now-renowned middle metaphysics culminating in his Freedom Essay of 1809 as well as proving its inception in the unresolved problems of the system prior to 1809.

El hecho de que recurrimos a conceptos para comprender el mundo y desenvolvernos en él es algo aceptado por la mayoría de personas. No obstante, ¿es posible hablar de un acercamiento al mismo que no esté mediado por conceptos? Es decir, ¿es posible hablar de una experiencia no conceptual? En este escrito expongo cuatro perspectivas de diversos filósofos y de distintas corrientes (Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Nishida y el primer Wittgenstein) respecto a este tipo de experiencias (denominadas en el argot popular como “místicas”). Se sostendrá que, si bien dicha experiencia del mundo como unidad no es conceptual, sí es condición de posibilidad para la construcción de significado y, por ello, la conceptualización misma.

This article explores the intricate relationship between Schelling, Being, and Predication, framed by two core themes that shape its argumentation. The first theme addresses the continuity between the System of Identity and Schelling’s System of Freedom, particu­larly through a critique of Fichte’s idealistic conception of Being. Schelling counters Fichte’s inadvertent dualism between consciousness and its real content by affirming the primacy of nature and proposing a realist unity. Drawing from Hölderlin’s thesis on the trans-reflexive nature of Being, Schelling asserts the identity of ideal and real grounds as the foundation of a unified reality. The second theme, concerning the theory of the bond, marks a profound shift in Schelling’s metaphysical framework, challenging the legitimacy of a system grounded solely in reason. The notion that no being can fully coincide with itself, thereby undermining the establishment of an identity in absolute terms, destabilizes the systematic vision of philosophy as the identity of principle and de­velopment. This critique extends to the conception of reason as a substantive principle, disrupting the foundational assumptions of other systematic thinkers of modernity. Through these interconnected themes, the article reveals how Schelling’s thought recon­figures the metaphysical and epistemological foundations of modern philosophy.

Schelling’s system of identity, initiated in 1801, soon encounters several ontological challenges following the publication of the dialogue Bruno in 1802. These issues revolve around the distinction between the Absolute and the world, and the very existence of the finite. The central theme of Schelling’s Philosophy and Religion – and of this paper – is the concept of the Fall. Schelling develops this idea by drawing an analogy with Christian dogma; in his philosophy, however, it signifies the emergence of meaning and explains the existence of a finite world. Moreover, freedom, inherently linked to finitude, now depends on the establishment of a “real absolute” where nature, the world, and humanity are recognised as the proper domain of freedom, in contrast to the original, self-contained “ideal absolute”. Comparing this development with Schelling’s earlier identity system, we argue that between 1802 and 1804 he shifts toward a more dualistic stance, thereby departing from mainstream German Idealism years before the Freedom Essay.

The history of evolutionary theory usually focuses on discussing its development and impact in specific countries such as the United States, Britain, France, and Germany. Although traditions analyse the introduction of Darwin’s ideas in diverse cultural contexts, the starting point is a continued reassertion of diffusionism. In addition, given that biologists have strongly driven the history of biology, presentism is an approach often used, especially to defend the logic of the “Darwinian Revolution” itself. This commentary aims to reflect on diffusionism and presentism’s impact in the specific case of Mexico. Part of the argument will focus on contrasting the approaches of both biologists and historians regarding the history of biology. On the other hand, the consequences of the “Darwinian Revolution” on the conception of biology in Mexico will be discussed.

This article deals with Schelling's critique of the idealist concept of the system in his Stuttgart Seminars concerning the following points. In the first place, Schelling distinguishes between the system of the world and a system of thought in that the former cannot be invented but discovered. Every system of thought, that is, every unilaterally ideal system, can be signaled for Schelling as an invention of its author. Secondly, Schelling differentiates between the concept of identity and the real opposition which expresses itself in the system of the world. It will be analyzed here the extent to which Schelling's concept of creative identity posits the absolute as a third term that serves as a mediator between the poles of the real = A and the ideal = B. As a result of this framework concerning the system and its relation to reality, we will deal in turn with a variety of topics arising in Schelling's middle metaphysics, such as the emergence of the finite from the absolute, the status of the finite as a counter-image, as well as the relationship between system and freedom, and between God and the world to illustrate our author's gradual rejection of constructivists, that is, idealists grounding attempts of the system.

La presente investigación aborda los distintos modelos urbanísticos que propuso Le Corbusier a lo largo de toda su trayectoria. Estos modelos principales, cuantificándose hasta cuatro, además de otros de menor entidad, muestran la evolución en la conceptualización y las características que propuso para la ciudad del siglo XX. Su aplicación a las diferentes ciudades, tanto interiores como litorales, evidencian tanto la diversidad de su urbanismo como la adaptabilidad de los mencionados modelos a casos reales. De este modo, se procura superar las visiones parciales que habitualmente se hacen sobre toda su obra urbana.

El objetivo principal de este manuscrito es presentar una nueva metodología de abordaje en la radicalización violenta usando como herramienta principal la metodología Scrum, la cual ha sido ampliamente usada en entornos de construcción de software. Se plantea una metodología de trabajo centrada en los destinatarios de la intervención: los adolescentes. Así, el método Scrum se ha mostrado, en multitud de ocasiones, muy eficaz como estrategia de aprendizaje colaborativo, habiéndose utilizado en entornos universitarios para el desarrollo de proyectos de gran calidad durante breves periodos de tiempo. Abordando la carta de valores e interviniendo hacia valores incompatibles con la violencia se pretende lograr la disminución de la radicalización en este colectivo.

Este artículo busca el reconocimiento del trabajo de los educadores de adultos y sus luchas desde el fin de la dictadura hasta la actualidad para asentar las bases de la educación de adultos.Con una metodología cualitativa de corte exploratorio, basada en entrevistas en profundidad a los profesionales que estuvieron involucrados, este artículo describe los orígenes, las dificultades encontradas y los procesos llevados a cabo en la creación y reconocimiento oficial del centro de educación de adultos Joan Carles I, situado en el barrio de La Mariola de Lleida, que tiene una idiosincrasia propia.

Commencing in 1809 Schelling elaborated an explicit anarchist political philosophy based on the anthropological and individualistic elements of his newly developed metaphysics of finitude, evil, and human freedom. Notwithstanding the importance of those elements centered around the notions of a ‘particular will’ in 1809 and proper will and spirit in 1810, a direct presentation of Schelling’s critique of the State is yet scarce among Schelling scholars due to the fact that it presupposes a broader inquiry into his conception of nature and love in the much complex system of 1810. In what follows we will link both lines of investigation – namely Schelling’s anthropology and philosophy of Nature – to show the interconnections between (I) Schelling’s theory of inner unity of nature, (II) his new approach to the relation between God, nature, and man, and finally (III) how these two previous topics influence Schelling’s critique of the external form of unity he attributes to the State.

The following topics guide our reasoning in this article on Schelling, Being, and Predication. The first, in which continuity between the System of Identity and Schelling's new essay on the System of Freedom can be seen, concerns the critique of Fichte's idealistic concept of being and consequently the affirmation of the thesis of the primacy of nature in view of achieving a realist position of unity. Against a position that, like Fichte's, falls into an inadvertent difference between consciousness and its real content, Schelling asserts the identity of ideal and real ground based on Hölderlin's thesis of the trans-reflexive character of Being. The second theme, regarding the theory of the bond, completely changes the conceptual horizon of Schelling's metaphysics and calls into question the claim of a system of reason in general. The impossibility of any being to be itself, and consequently the final impossibility of establishing an identity as such affects in turn the world view of the system of philosophy as the identity of principle and development and impends the identity of reason as a substantial principle as conceived by other systematic thinkers of modernity.

In this article we present Schelling’s conception of love, as it develops in the years 1809 and 1810, as the beginning of a minor tradition in theories of recognition. Our aim is to show how Schelling articulates a view of the self and the second person as independent elements from one another, but which can be brought into a relationship through a free decision, i.e., not conditioned by a whole that overrides and predetermines them. To achieve this goal, we will first present the metaphysical presuppositions of individuality in the context of Schelling’s middle metaphysics (1804-1820). Secondly, we will show how the link between being oneself, being other, and the problem of evil arises from the advent of the real, that is, the split between the first and the second person. Finally, we will highlight the bond that indissolubly unites the real, the self, and the being-other, in terms of the unity of diverse elements that we call “love”. Resumen: En este artículo presentamos la concepción del amor de Schelling, tal como esta se desarrolla en los años 1809 y 1810, como el comienzo de una tradición menor en las teorías del reconocimiento (1). Nuestro objetivo es mostrar cómo Schelling articula una visión del sí mismo y de la segunda persona en tanto elementos independientes uno del otro, pero que pueden entrar en relación por medio de una decisión libre, esto es, no condicionada por un todo que los sobre y predetermina. Para lograr este objetivo expondremos en primer lugar los presupuestos metafísicos de la individualidad en el contexto de la metafísica intermedia de Schelling entre 1804-1820 (2). En segundo lugar, introducimos la vinculación entre ser sí mismo, ser otro y el problema del mal surgido por el advenimiento de lo real, es decir, de la escisión entre la primera y la segunda persona (3, 4). Finalmente, pondremos en evidencia el lazo que une indisolublemente a lo real, esto es, al sí mismo y al ser otro, en términos de la unidad de elementos diversos que Schelling denomina “amor” (5). Abstract: In this article we present Schelling’s conception of love, as it develops in the years 1809 and 1810, as the beginning of a minor tradition in theories of recognition (1). Our aim is to show how Schelling articulates a view of the self and the second person as independent elements from one another, but which can be brought into a relationship through a free decision, i.e., not conditioned by a whole that overrides and predetermines them. To achieve this goal, we will first present the metaphysical presuppositions of individuality in the context of Schelling’s middle metaphysics between 1804-1820 (2). Secondly, we will show how the link between being oneself, being other, and the problem of evil arises from the advent of the real, that is, the split between the first and the second person (3, 4). Finally, we will highlight the bond that indissolubly unites the real, the self, and the being-other, in terms of the unity of diverse elements that we call “love” (5).

The use of omega fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation could be a beneficial strategy to improve health and production in ruminants. In this study, the effect of the dietary addition of c9, t11 and t10, c12 isomers of conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) in pure soybean oil (T1) was compared with pure soybean oil (T2) and soybean oil discarded after frying fish (Centropomus undecimalis, Pagrus pagrus, and Caranx crysos; T3) on the fatty acid profile in ewe milk and the tissues of their lambs. Forty-five multiparous ewes (East Friesian × Katahdin), 32 to 35 months old, 70 days pregnant, were randomly assigned to one of the three experimental diets. The fatty acid profile, total solids, fat, protein, and lactose in milk were determined 14 days postpartum. Fifteen lambs from each treatment were sacrificed at 70 days of age, and the fatty acid profiles in perirenal fat, muscle, and brain were determined. In milk, fat and total solids content were lower with T1. On the other hand, linoleic acid content, the sum of omega-6 and DHA were higher in T1 compared to other groups (p < 0.05). In the brain, stearic acid and linoleic acid concentration increased with T1; eicosapentaenoic acid decreased and omega-3s increased with T3, while DHA was lower in T2 (p < 0.05). The addition of CLA isomers or discarded soybean oil in ewe diet from pregnancy to lactation is advantageous for the ewe since less energy in the form of milk fat is lost. In addition, increasing the concentration of omega fatty acids in ewe diet to improve omega fatty acids in lamb’s brain could be a feed strategy to increase their productivity and health.

Supplemental zinc in fattening lambs improves their health, performance, and meat quality. However, the Zn effect on grazing animals combined with different levels of concentrate should be known unknown. The objective was to evaluate the Zn-organic effect in the diet of grazing lambs supplemented with two levels of concentrate on growth, dry matter (DM) intake, carcass traits, body composition, meat quality, and fatty acid profile in Longissimus dorsi muscle. Twenty-eight lambs were used in a factorial arrangement of two levels of concentrate (C) feed intake (C-0.75 and C-1.5% of live weight) and two Zn-Met levels (0 and 80 ppm Zn kg−1 DM) on the grazing of Lolium perenne L. Digestibility and dry matter intake, weight gain, and productive performance were measured. At the end of the fattening period (90 d), the lambs were slaughtered and the carcass traits, body composition, instrumental quality, and lipid profile of meat were evaluated. The effect of treatment (T), measurement period (P), and T × P interaction was observed (p < 0.05) for dry matter intake (DMI). For the final live weight (FLW) and daily weight gain (DWG), there was an effect (p < 0.05) of T and P, with Zn-80 ppm + C-1.5% treatment being greater. The live weight at slaughter (LWS) and leg length (LL) showed an effect (p < 0.05) of C × Zn. Zn-80 ppm + C-1.5% treatment was higher in the kidney fat, empty body weight, carcass fat, fat and retained energy but lower in protein content (p < 0.05). The physicochemical characteristics and fatty acid content of meat were not affected (p > 0.05). It can be concluded that the concentrated-organic zinc synergy in grazing lambs improved the performance, weight gain, and body composition, which resulted in heavier carcasses with greater amounts of fat, protein, and energy deposited. Furthermore, the physical and chemical meat traits were not affected, but the n-3 fatty acid content and n-3/n-6 ratio in Longissimus dorsi was affected by the Zn level supplemented.

Schelling’s 1806 essay against Fichte is important for two reasons: it discusses (1) the impossibility of idealism to grasp the real and objective status of Being and, therefore, the need for a metaphysical grounding of reflection situated outside of consciousness itself; (2) the discovery of the irreversibility of nature in God, which sheds new light on Schelling’s speculations about the relation between the ideal and the real ground of philosophy. Schelling changed the stance first presented in the System of Transcendental Idealism of 1800 to one according to which there is a non-derivative relation between nature and God: both are independent beings; at the same time, he makes God, as in classical metaphysics, a being that transcends nature. This allows Schelling to overcome the problem of the idealist distinction between logical and real movement, although it destroys the possibility of a single system of philosophy in the years after 1806.

This article explores Schelling's critique of Fichte's idealism in light of his evolving metaphysical framework, emphasizing his affirmation of the primacy of nature. By challenging Fichte's concept of being, Schelling underscores the importance of a realist position that asserts the unity of ideal and real, drawing on Hölderlin’s idea of Being as trans-reflexive. The first major theme examined is Schelling’s critique of the distinction between consciousness and its real content, which Fichte's system inadvertently promotes. Schelling counters this by advocating for an identity of the ideal and the real, thus reframing the metaphysical debate. The second theme explores the theory of the bond, a pivotal shift in Schelling’s thought, which disrupts the notion of a systematic unity grounded in reason. Schelling’s realization that no being can wholly be itself, and the resulting impossibility of establishing a strict identity, challenges the traditional modern philosophical systems that uphold the identity of principle and development. This article argues that Schelling’s work anticipates a more dynamic, interconnected understanding of Being, ultimately undermining the conventional idea of reason as a static, substantial principle, as upheld by earlier idealist thinkers.

When analyzing food systems challenges, considering multiple different narratives might lead to solutions that are more innovative and grounded in the local context relative to considering just a single narrative. However, the relationship between narrative diversity and innovation in food systems is not fully understood. Understanding the structure of and interactions between different food systems narratives can help researchers to identify opportunities (e.g., policies, interventions, and institutions) that could facilitate food systems transformations. This paper explores how narratives about food systems converge and vary between different groups of actors in rural Colombia as well as the implications for the co-development of innovative solutions amongst these actors to address food system challenges. As a case study, we focus on an important national policy initiative in Colombia, A Ciencia Cierta, which connects public science and civil society to implement community-based innovations. We conducted 47 interviews with key stakeholders, including policymakers, facilitators, academics, community leaders, and community participants who had been part of the initiative in Colombia, and experts about narratives in food systems globally. We found that actors (both individuals and groups) possess multiple narratives about food systems which evolve over time and adjust according to varying circumstances. Our findings indicate that hybrid innovations enabled by diverse knowledge(s) provide alternative solutions to overcome challenges faced by actors in food systems. This paper generates theoretical and empirical contributions to the growing study of how epistemic plurality can enhance innovation pathways in food systems.

Several studies have explored differences between North American and European doctor patient relationships. They have focused primarily on differences in philosophical traditions and historic and socioeconomic factors between these two regions that might lead to differences in behaviour, as well as divergent concepts in and justifications of medical practice. However, few empirical intercultural studies have been carried out to identify in practice these cultural differences. This lack of standard comparative empirical studies led us to compare differences between France and the USA regarding end-of-life decision-making. We tested certain assertions put forward by bioethicists concerning the impact of culture on the acceptance of advance directives in such decisions. In particular, we compared North American and French intensive care professional's attitudes toward: (1) advance directives, and (2) the role of the family in decisions to withhold or withdraw life-support.

The dialogue Bruno of 1802 is arguably the natural starting point for any investigation on the concepts of finitude, evil and human freedom in Schelling’s middle metaphysics. In this dialogue the author elaborates for the first time in his system a concept of freedom and independence of the finite, which extends via his reformulation in Philosophy and Religion of 1804 to the Freedom Essay of 1809 and beyond to the works of 1810 and 1811 – Stuttgart Private Lectures and The Ages of the World. The central ontological problem of the dialogue relates to the possibility of a separation between the absolute and the world as space of finite beings, which, according to the system of identity first presented in 1801, cannot exist as such. The question we will then address concerns the status of the finite as such and how would it be possible to admit both its existence for consciousness and the positing of an absolute and infinite principle of philosophy. We will show how Schelling’s interest shifts, almost unintentionally, from the infinite principle to the finite as such, as a principle of freedom and self-initiation independent of the real.

This paper refers to the connection between the metaphysical duality of ground and existence and inner dynamic of the particular will of man. We will analyse how the metaphysical monism, which Schelling attributes to Spinoza and later to Hegel, is responsible for the abolition of the freedom of the human individual, because it does not account for the existence of evil, and consequently reduces it to the existence of a higher order reference system that over and predetermines the individual (1). We will first scrutinise the principles of separation and union, ground and understanding from the human point of view, namely as the will of ground and love, as particular and universal will (2). The will of man reveals itself as the culmination and model of the will that permeates nature, an essential aspect of the process of God’s revelation and becoming. The link between the principles of separation and union shows us the difference that Schellingian thought establishes between man and God, the real and the ideal. While God, or the purely ideal principle, precedes the separation in a logical-ontological sense, the will of man remains always in an indissoluble tension between the principles, since it is unable to overcome the opposition between good and evil that is characteristic of freedom. The good remains one of the results of human freedom and thus of the particular will of man. The good lies for Schelling not in the simple actualization of the general, but in the moment ineradicable particularity needed for the attainment of a real and effective principle (3). It is to this insurmountability of the particular will in the process of the constitution of man that our proposal of Schelling’s libertarian anarchism refers. The connection of this thesis with the critique of the State is also discussed (4).

Este artículo tiene el objetivo de dilucidar el contexto, contenido y propósito general de las críticas que Agnes Heller (1929-2019) planteó sobre las filosofías de la historia. Para tal efecto, se revisan algunos de los postulados de estas con el fin de destacar cómo Heller, a propósito del contexto político en el que vivió, volvió su mirada hacia esas filosofías con el fin de escrutar los vínculos que, a su parecer, se tejían entre ellas y los regímenes totalitarios que se forjaron durante el siglo xx. Al respecto, se argumenta que las reflexiones de la autora no se orientaron solamente a dar cuenta de dicha cuestión, sino que, como resultado de su esmerada labor intelectual, de sus convicciones morales y de su propia experiencia personal, encaminó sus esfuerzos hacia la elaboración de una sugerente concepción de la historia que se fundamentó en criterios y principios éticos.

Este artículo busca el reconocimiento del trabajo de los educadores de adultos y sus luchas desde el fin de la dictadura hasta la actualidad para asentar las bases de la educación de adultos.Con una metodología cualitativa de corte exploratorio, basada en entrevistas en profundidad a los profesionales que estuvieron involucrados, este artículo describe los orígenes, las dificultades encontradas y los procesos llevados a cabo en la creación y reconocimiento oficial del centro de educación de adultos Joan Carles I, situado en el barrio de La Mariola de Lleida, que tiene una idiosincrasia propia.