Margherita Bianchi

This paper explores connections between studies on plant interactive abilities and (1) systemic-relational and ecological approaches, and (2) the framework of extended cognition. The first connection focuses on the transformation of the concept of environment – from a backdrop for organismic life to a constitutive and formative element of the ‘agent-environment’ system – arising from systems theory in dialogue with ecological studies and epistemological approaches to complexity. The second connection examines the post-cognitivist theoretical approach of extended cognition, which can offer valuable insights into how research on plant capacities might be oriented, particularly regarding the role of the context and the presence of other organisms. The interconnection between these levels lays the groundwork for future investigations not only into plant abilities, but also into philosophical approaches aimed at developing a conception of cognition as a historically, relational, and context-dependent process that can be functionally extended beyond the physical boundaries of individual organisms.

Is it possible to attribute agency, goal-oriented behaviors, motor intentions, or “chemical actions” to plants? After an indispensable terminological and conceptual clarification – considering the presence of terms often used interchangeably, however connected – I report several criticisms and challenges associated with extending the concept of agency to the plant world. Following this, I discuss some premises required to address this topic, focusing on the unique structure and organization of plant bodies. I then explore two examples of plant behavior: the first concerns ongoing research on the movements of climbing plants, and the second involves different levels of plant communication. Both examples provide evidence to consider the potential for plants to exhibit goal-directed, modular, and contextually adaptable behaviors. Further research into these capabilities could improve our understanding of non-muscular, less integrated, and more process-oriented forms of “action”, thereby clarifying the influence of various processes and capacities involved. Overall, studying plant characteristics and activities not only advances the discourse from a novel perspective but also facilitates updated conceptual distinctions, hypothesize new paths of research, and a deeper understanding of the systemic and relational aspects of plant interactions.

This book provides a detailed overview of philosophical ramifications of the emerging area of plant behavior. It is also a response to some of the main criticisms of this heterogeneous discipline. This volume is both a practical guide for those new to the subject, providing a historical reconstruction of the development of the topics, while at the same time an opportunity to allow for discussion at a more advanced level. It is not a demonstrative text, but rich in insights to guide future theoretical and practical research. This monograph appeals to interdisciplinary researchers and students working within the spectrum of life sciences to academic philosophy.

The widespread disregard for plant behavior is gradually being overcome through more inclusive theoretical approaches and the development of appropriate and advanced technologies. In this paper we review scientific evidence on recent contributions to the study of plants, such as movement and communication as well as potential forms of attention. Some of the most recent contributions to the study of plant abilities come from comparative studies on biocommunication and research on the accuracy of plants in responding to different environmental stimuli through electrophysiological and kinematical analyses in different context (e.g., individual and social). Furthermore, an underexplored area that warrants further investigation is plants’ multisensory perception and its potential link to multimodal communication capabilities. Research into this set of abilities could help to clarify the degree of behavioral flexibility in sessile organisms without a nervous system and enhance discussions on interactive behavior as expressed in nature. This, in turn, will help to bridge the gap between studies on animal organisms and the rest of the living world.

This article examines the growing impact that the cognitive behaviours of plants, sessile organisms without a nervous system, are having in various areas of philosophical research. The consideration will focus primarily on spillovers into cognitive science, the philosophy of mind, and biosemiotics, although there are other areas that this new exploration of the capabilities of plants is touching upon. Some issues are ontological, related to our unconscious psychological tendencies to talk about a reality subdivided in hypersimplifying ways and, on the other hand, to the rigorous metanalysis work of identifying, differentiating, and categorizing entities and processes. Others are epistemological, related to the ways and limits of knowing phenomena. Others regard the analyses of the perceptual sensitivity of plants based on a comparison with different systems of perception-action that offer qualitatively different experiences. Finally, there are issues concerning the presence or absence of semiotic processes in the plant world, related to the production, transmission, and “interpretation” (non-conceptual) of signs in these organisms’ living and interacting environments. The article raises queries and considerations as a starting point for research that requires further investigation. The purpose here is not to delve into a focal debate or question but to offer an overview of the main challenges and most significant horizons in this field. This attempt should therefore be understood as a working map for a future research agenda.

In quest’articolo, arricchiti da una serie di considerazioni, argomenti e fonti, secondo un approccio alla cognizione empiricamente informato, processuale e contesto-dipendente, proseguiamo la riflessione avviata da Bianchi e Castiello (2023) sulle varie concezioni di rappresentazione, con particolare riferimento a una sua eventuale applicazione nell’ambito degli studi sulla cognizione delle piante. Questo tipo di analisi interdisciplinare ha intersecato diverse questioni, variamente connesse, come, in particolare, quella relativa al modo di intendere la complessità e la semplicità e i livelli di emergenza nei sistemi cognitivi; quella dell’enfasi sullo studio dei modelli predittivi negli approcci embodied e orientati all’azione per la spiegazione dei comportamenti di anticipazione, dei processi di attenzione e delle varie forme di memoria corporea per il rilevamento, il trasferimento e l’organizzazione selettiva nelle reti di segnalazione delle informazioni ambientali. In ottica pluralista, si esprime, anche questa volta, la necessità di proseguire questa ricerca multilivello sempre più in grado di circoscrivere l’analisi attraverso modelli e test specie-specifici per capire se i comportamenti delle piante si avvalgano di aspetti rappresentazionali (e in che senso) o se sia necessario, e più conveniente, fare riferimento ai processi alla base delle loro risposte comportamentali in termini diversi o nuovi. La questione è aperta e la ricerca in corso.

In questo articolo ci si domanda se ricorrere a una qualche concezione di rappresentazione per spiegare la cognizione delle piante sia utile o meno. Dopo aver richiamato una pluralità di visioni sul concetto di rappresentazione in vari approcci alle scienze cognitive, ci si soffermerà sull’eventuale presenza di una particolare concezione di rappresentazione – un tipo di rappresentazione molecolare – pertinente il caso vegetale. all’insegna di un approccio processuale e relazionale alla cognizione, ci si interrogherà sulla possibile relazione di aspetti rappresentazionali 1) con il ruolo svolto dalle reti biologiche di segnalazione chimico-elettrica interne ai corpi vegetali, e, in particolare, 2) con le capacità di rilevamento, memorizzazione e apprendimento dell’informazione ambientale da parte delle piante. Nello specifico, ci si chiederà se e che tipo di ruolo abbia la memoria vegetale, ai suoi vari livelli di operatività, con la capacità sia di strutturare un insieme di elementi e di dinamiche processuali, sia con la capacità di richiamare tali elementi e dinamiche al ripresentarsi di situazioni simili. Ci si domanderà se e che rapporto abbia la memoria delle piante con una possibile concezione molecolare di rappresentazione. La questione è aperta.

Le piante sono state tendenzialmente considerate organismi privi di sensibilità e di proprie forme di intelligenza. La letteratura scientifica sulla cognizione vegetale è in costante aumento e tali questioni meritano di trovare spazio anche nella riflessione filosofica contemporanea. Dopo aver ricostruito l’importanza degli organismi vegetali a livello di benessere ecosistemico e di utilità nella vita umana, questo libro si propone di tracciare collegamenti tra i risultati raggiunti nel campo delle scienze biologiche ed ecologiche, in particolare nelle attuali plant sciences, e alcuni argomenti tratti dall’ambito delle scienze cognitive e da quelli della filosofia della mente e della filosofia della biologia.

This paper aims to propose a relational approach to the study of cognition that can offer a perspective on the cognitive behaviours of plants – sessile organisms without a nervous system – when considered in the reciprocal interrogation of philosophy and the cognitive and ecological sciences. When leveraging the inspiring, clarifying, and occasionally heuristic potential of different epistemic tools, plant cognition can be understood as the result of processes constantly shaped by multiple co-constructive relationships between organisms and their ecological niches. Organisms and niches are conceivable as dense multi-functional systems of resources and information interchange. The concepts of network and ramification are fruitful keys to frame forms of dynamic relationships between elements. In their alternatively iconical, metaphorical, and conceptual-modelling potentialities, networks and ramifications have been used to identify different types of relationships and transmitted information. The explanatory and heuristic scope of these two concepts needs to be further investigated when linked to cognitive aspects, especially with regard the concept of ramification. Looking at the plant world, whilst much has been written about networks, relatively little has been said explicitly about ramifications (branching capacity, branching characteristics and habits) and their relationship with aspects related to plant behaviour and cognition.

The concept of time has long been the subject of complex philosophical reflections and scientific research, which have interpreted it differently based on the starting question, context, and level of analysis of the system under investigation. In the present review, we first explore how time has been studied among different scientific fields such as physics, neuroscience, and bioecological sciences. We emphasize the fundamental role of an organism's ability to perceive the passage of time and dynamically adapt to its environment for survival. Growth, reproduction, and communication processes are subject to spatiotemporal variability, and the sense of time allows organisms to structure their interactions, track past, and anticipate future events. Specifically, building on a relational and multilevel approach, this paper proposes an analysis of various aspects of the temporal dimension of plants—ranging from their growth and adaptation rates to behavioral strategies and modes of communication—culminating in a focused examination of research based on the kinematical analysis of plant movement. By adopting a comparative and critical approach, we raise several questions about the temporality of processes from different perspectives. Further insights into the timing of physiological and communication processes in plants will help to recognize the central role of temporality in life and to discover mechanisms, processes, and behavioral strategies that may be common (or similar) across species or unique (species-specific) for some organisms, both with and without nervous systems.