Maria stephania Aponte Garcia

Technological advancement is transforming the nature of contemporary armed conflicts. The war between Russia and Ukraine has highlighted the increasingly critical role of advanced technologies—such as artificial intelligence, cyber systems and autonomous weapons on the battlefield. This integration raises legal and ethical challenges within the framework of International Humanitarian Law, requiring an examination of its application and scope. This article first reviews the IHL regulatory frameworks applicable to the use of emerging technologies. It then identifies ethical dilemmas arising from drone attacks, digital sabotage operations and algorithmic disinformation practices. The methodology employed consists of a qualitative documentary approach that integrates sources from 2017 to 2025, including United Nations resolutions, reports from the International Committee of the Red Cross, UNESCO technical documents and analyses from specialized research centers. The corpus is organized into three analytical dimensions: IHL regulation, relevant technological characteristics and political-legal impacts. Through a thematic comparative method, normative standards are cross-referenced with case studies involving kamikaze drones, cyberattacks on critical infrastructure and artificial-intelligence-based facial recognition in military operations. The conclusions reveal regulatory gaps regarding meaningful human control, responsibility attribution, algorithmic transparency and the protection of civilian assets. The analysis shows that the conflict exposes substantive limitations within the current international framework and underscores the need to strengthen these mechanisms to address the challenges posed by disruptive military technologies.

The article examines the evolution, since 1945, of the cardinal principles of International Humanitarian Law (military necessity, distinction, proportionality, prohibition of unnecessary suffering and precautions in attack) and their articulation with the core principles of disarmament law (transparency, verifiability, irreversibility and non discrimination). Through a qualitative, legal-dogmatic and historical-critical approach based on treaties, international jurisprudence, UN resolutions and specialized doctrine, it reconstructs how both sets of principles have progressively converged, forming a shared humanitarian framework to limit means and methods of warfare. The study shows that concerns inherent to IHL have driven major humanitarian disarmament processes, including the prohibition of chemical and biological weapons, anti-personnel landmines, cluster munitions and, more recently, nuclear weapons. It also analyzes the challenges posed by autonomous weapons systems,artificial intelligence in hostilities and offensive cyber operations, assessing whether existing IHL and disarmament principles provide adequate parameters for their regulation. It concludes that the interdependence between both branches is essential to guiding the governance of emerging technologies.

The increasing incorporation of drones, artificial intelligence (AI), autonomous weapons, and cyber capabilities into armed conflicts is reshaping practices of organized violence and expanding legal, political, and security controversies surrounding the use of force. This article examines the evolution of this debate and addresses the following question: how has the legal, political, and security discussion surrounding these technologies in armed conflicts changed? A systematic literature review complemented by bibliometric analysis was conducted. The search was carried out in Web of Science (SSCI), and the selection followed the PRISMA guidelines, with explicit inclusion and exclusion criteria. The 2020–2025 period yielded a corpus of 33 articles, which was analyzed through journal mapping, topic–author–country relationships, thematic evolution, and lexical comparison. The methodology combines quantitative and bibliometric analyses supported by tools such as Biblioshiny and Posit PBC™. The results show a shift from questioning the applicability of international law toward the operationalization of International Humanitarian Law (IHL) under conditions of distance, automation, and accelerated decision-making. In the case of drones, the focus moves from “precision” to institutional opacity, accountability, and proliferation. Regarding AI and autonomous weapons, the debate centers on decision-making agency, meaningful human control, and responsibility frameworks. In cybersecurity, disputes predominantly concern the notion of “attack,” attribution, and escalation risks, with increasing relevance of the temporal dimension. It is concluded that the prevailing regulatory response tends to re-operationalize IHL through standards, progressive clarification of obligations, and incremental international stabilization mechanisms.

This study examines the impact of artificial intelligence (AI) adoption on operational efficiency in tourism firms, incorporating implementation challenges as a mediating mechanism. Drawing on Diffusion of Innovations, Service-Dominant Logic, and Dynamic Capabilities theory, the research proposes an explanatory structural model linking chatbot use, service automation, and predictive analytics to operational performance outcomes. Data were collected from 121 tourism SMEs located in Cali, Colombia, and analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The results indicate that AI adoption positively influences operational efficiency both directly and indirectly through implementation challenges, confirming partial mediation. Chatbot use emerges as the strongest driver of AI integration, followed by service automation and predictive analytics. The findings suggest that operational benefits derived from AI depend not only on technological deployment but also on organizations' capacity to manage technical, regulatory, and human barriers. This study contributes empirical evidence from an underrepresented Latin American context and advances understanding of AI as a systemic organizational capability.

This article is the result of research on the influence of family vulnerability on the executive functions of adolescents in an educational institution in Tuluá, Colombia, during the year 2023. The study, a mixed-methods approach with a sequential explanatory design, included ten participants aged 11 to 17. An adaptation of the Multifactorial Exploratory Questionnaire of Cooperation and Aggression, the Montreal Cognitive Assessment, and the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Test were used, complemented by semi-structured interviews. The results revealed that 40% of the participants live with family members who consume psychoactive substances; 30% report feeling misunderstood or undervalued; 40% have experienced punitive measures such as beatings, intense arguments, insults, humiliation, and disdain; 30% have a negative perception of neighborhood safety; 90% have had problems for not following family rules; 30% have difficulties expressing their feelings; 70% have negative thoughts about themselves, and 30% have had suicidal ideations. Regarding executive functions, 70% scored below expectations on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment, and their percentiles in the ReyOsterrieth Complex Figure Test showed variability. These findings indicate that family vulnerability negatively influences executive and verbal fluency, planning, and decisionmaking in adolescents. Lack of emotional support and exposure to violent environments were highlighted as critical factors that deteriorate mental health and confidence in their abilities

This article is the result of a research process supported by bibliographic references drawn from history in general and from the history of law in particular, grounded in constitutional transformations and the concept of the citizen, and analytically sustained by constitutional law, legal theory, sociology, and legal anthropology. The legal theory referenced in the study is critical theory, which aims to reveal what is formal in order to expose situations excluded from analyses of constitutional history—such as the processes of exclusion reproduced in the constitutional texts themselves against people and collectives belonging to the emerging republics that would shape the Latin American region. The article is divided into five parts. The first, titled “The First Constitutions in Hispanic America,” discusses the promulgation of the first constitutions of the newly formed republics, which sought to enshrine the rule of law and rights inspired by the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, in order for nation-states to appear modern within a context of gradual departure from Iberian colonization. The second part, “Exclusion in the 1811 Constitution of Cundinamarca,” shows how the first constitution enacted in the region excluded many from citizenship; only a few who met the requirements established in the constitutional text could participate in elections or be elected to government positions. The third part, “The 1811 Constitution of Tunja: Between Rights and Exclusion,” presents its pro-independence stance and recognizes certain rights of the citizens of the nascent republic; however, it also restricts who may run state institutions to a narrow group, thus reproducing political and social exclusion. The fourth part, “Other Exclusionary Constitutions in the Region,” explains how constitutions proclaimed in emerging states such as Mexico and Brazil continued the same exclusionary pattern regarding citizenship and leadership selection that had appeared in the constitutions of Nueva Granada. The fifth and final chapter, “Constitutionalism and the Conception of the Citizen in Latin America,” shows that the promulgation of constitutions in the region pursued state organization as a historical priority, given the transition away from colonial and monarchical domination toward modern nation-states. Despite that transformation promoted by the independence movements, the constitutions established criteria for determining citizenship that, based on the conditions required to elect or be elected as rulers, restricted political participation to a few, thereby institutionalizing political and social exclusion.

This article examines the evolution of industrial revolutions and their influence on international law, from initial mechanization to the challenges of the digital age. The First Industrial Revolution spurred the consolidation of the first humanitarian treaties and international technical agreements, linking technological progress with the need for legal regulation. The Second Industrial Revolution, marked by electricity and mass production, generated an expansion of norms surrounding intellectual property, labor rights, and the limitations of mechanized warfare. The Third Industrial Revolution, characterized by automation and the expansion of information technology, strengthened an international institutional framework that included the United Nations and specialized agencies, along with new environmental, economic, and human rights regimes. Revolution 4.0, defined by artificial intelligence, biotechnology, and digitalization, poses unprecedented challenges to state sovereignty, human dignity, and legal accountability, highlighting the inadequacy of traditional regulatory frameworks. Debates are emerging regarding autonomous weapons, algorithmic governance, and digital trade, which require adaptive and polycentric regulations. Finally, Revolution 5.0 proposes a human-centric and sustainable paradigm that seeks to reorient technological development toward global justice, intergenerational equity, and the protection of digital rights. Overall, it concludes that the transition from fragmented international law to flexible and polycentric governance is imperative to effectively respond to contemporary technological challenges, preserving peace, justice, and fundamental rights in an increasingly complex global landscape.

The scope of the just judicial decision identifies the conceptual solidity not only of the legal order within which the decisional act is inserted as a category but also of the degree of rational recognition that this normative order socially communicates as fair. In this context, a judicial decision issued rationally within a contractually signed system is always pure positive law, but positive law, after all, is characterized by the fact that the act of issuing a sentence will always be a representation of the jurisdictional power of the State. It will then be the State as a positive institution that, fulfilling its duty of subjection to the principle of the rule of law, assumes as its mandate the linguistic communication of the normative text. A normative decision (judgment), legally binding, issued in the aforementioned circumstances, always runs the risk of being qualified as intolerable, or, as Radbruch puts it, an unjust decision. It is there, where, in principle, lies the purpose of this essay, trying to establish what is the basis for the rational validity of the fair judicial decision

El presente Libro es el resultado de un proceso de investigación científica conjunta en relación a La nulidad de los actos administrativos en Colombia es una institución jurisdiccional y por eso sólo la jurisdicción contencioso administrativa (jueces, tribunales y Consejo de Estado), tiene la competencia exclusiva y excluyente para anular un Acto Administrativo de cualquier autoridad administrativa del Estado o de personas particulares con función y servicio públicos. Basada la nulidad e inexistencia del acto administrativo en el debido proceso administrativo impone a las entidades del Estado adelantar cualquier actuación o procedimiento administrativo, cuyo propósito sea crear, modificar o extinguir situaciones jurídicas, con la estricta observancia de los lineamientos previamente consagrados por el legislador, esto con el objeto de garantizar a los ciudadanos que puedan verse afectados por el ejercicio de la función pública, la protección de sus derechos de contradicción y defensa. Por tanto, el presente Libro es el esbozo organizado de capítulos atientes abordar antecedentes, metodologías, objetivos, marco de referencia, casos y jurisprudencia en materia de Acto administrativo.

Between 2016 and 2024, the rapid development of emerging military technologies, such aslethal autonomous weapons, artificial intelligence applied to warfare, and cyber warfare, has posedsignificant challenges to International Humanitarian Law (IHL). This article critically analyzes the influenceof States, international organizations, and civil society in shaping the legal and ethical frameworksaddressing these issues. Using a qualitative, hermeneutic approach, it examines global actors’ discourses,principles, and regulatory proposals. The study identifies three key findings: (i) a critical normative gapconcerning autonomous systems and cyberconflicts; (ii) the need to reframe the notion of meaningfulhuman control as a substantive legal safeguard; and (iii) the reluctance of technologically advanced Statesto accept binding frameworks. The discussion highlights the role of civil society as a normative co-designerand proposes a more inclusive, anticipatory, and adaptive global governance. Finally, the article providesrecommendations to strengthen multilateral spaces, define clear principles, and promote proactive, ethical,and effective regulation of emerging military technologies.

The present article of scientific character, based on qualitative methodology of hermeneutic documentary cut, where techniques such as observation, documentary analysis, bibliographic review, summaries and conceptual maps were used, in relation to the Union Contract in the Institutions Providing Health Services, in this the themes of Summary Biography of the union contract are touched, Normative regulations of the union contract, Provision of services through unions of guilds, Obligations and prohibitions of the union contract, Health providers through union contract simulation, Abuse of rights and fraud with union contracts, Legal alternatives to reduce the union contract, Results and discussion.

Este artículo ilustra la intersección crítica entre la diversidad cultural, los conflictos armados, y los esfuerzos de justicia transicional en el Norte del Cauca. Las comunidades étnicas, a pesar de enfrentar desafíos persistentes derivados del conflicto armado y la explotación de recursos, han mostrado una resiliencia notable, adaptando estrategias legales y organizativas para abogar por sus derechos y preservar su rica herencia cultural, este estudio no solo contribuye al entendimiento académico de estos fenómenos complejos, sino que también subraya la necesidad de enfoques más integrados y culturalmente sensibles en la formulación de políticas y prácticas de paz y justicia. Metolodgicamente se revisaron publicaciones de antropólogos jurídicos, sociólogos y abogados, complementadas con experiencias de campo y un análisis crítico de los datos. Se destaca la perspectiva histórica-crítica en una región de rica biodiversidad, examinando las posibles transformaciones del conflicto y la justicia transicional.

El presente artículo parte de realizar una revisión de literatura y el análisis de los estudios que relacionan los conflictos sociales y armados, en la subregión del Norte del Cauca donde se asientan diversidad de comunidades étnicas como indígenas especialmente del Pueblo Nasa, Comunidades Negras y Zonas de Reserva Campesina. Metodológicamente se realizó la revisión de las publicaciones hechas por antropólogos jurídicos, sociólogos y abogados, y la propia experiencia de los investigadores en campo, sumando un análisis crítico de los datos recogidos, se muestra el panorama conflictivo y de justicia transicional desde perspectiva histórica-crítica en una región de rica biodiversidad y las posibles transformaciones del conflicto.

This research examines the impact of Revolution 4.0 on International Law and arms regulation, particularly in the period 2016-2024, through a critical and socio-legal approach, it analyzes the challenges imposed on International Humanitarian Law (IHL) by new technologies applied to armed conflicts, such as autonomous weapons systems (AWS), artificial intelligence (AI) and cyberwarfare. These innovations have reshaped the modern battlefield, posing serious challenges to the application of fundamental principles such as distinction, proportionality and precaution, the study starts from the recognition of a normative gap that hinders the attribution of state responsibility and meaningful human control, especially in scenarios where war decisions are automated, likewise, the role of states, international organizations and civil society in the construction of effective regulatory frameworks is examined; The methodology used combines normative-dogmatic, comparative-legal and philosophical-legal methods, supported by analysis of recent cases and specialized literature; the project aims not only to identify the normative transformations driven by the technological revolution, but also to propose guidelines to ensure respect for IHL in contexts of digitalized warfare, this research contributes to the reflection on the need to adapt international law to the dizzying changes of the XXI century, reaffirming the imperative of protecting civilian populations in the use of emerging war technologies.

Academic entrepreneurship and the formation of spin-offs from educational institutions have been consolidated as essential elements to promote innovation and stimulate economic growth worldwide. However, the evolution of these initiatives shows marked differences between developed countries and emerging economies, such as Colombia. This study focuses on analyzing how research in this area has progressed, identifying the key factors that determine the success of spin-offs and suggesting a framework for action for Colombia in comparison with international dynamics. The findings reveal a shift in research attention from prioritizing the creation of spin-offs to a greater focus on their long-term performance and sustainability. At the international level, the relevance of technology transfer, strategic alliances between universities and industry and the efficient management of technological resources are highlighted. On the other hand, in the Colombian context, research tends to focus on institutional aspects, cultural factors and support regulations, underestimating the analysis of the performance of spin-offs after their creation. This paper aims to contribute to the formulation of policies and strategies that promote not only the emergence but also the sustainability of academic spin-offs in Colombia, seeking to align their practices with international standards in order to maximize their impact on the economic and social development of the country.

Transitional justice in Colombia has evolved, reflecting the political, social, and academic changes in the country. This study is a systematic review of the literature through articles indexed in Web of Science, applying the PRISMA protocol. Out of 3819 articles published in the last five years (2019-2024), 109 articles were selected following strict exclusion criteria. The methodology includes a quantitative analysis complemented with the visual analysis tool Posit PBC™ for bibliometric analysis in Biblioshyni. The study addresses the research question on the evolution of the main research interests in the field of Transitional Justice in Colombia. The results show that initially, analyses on transitional justice focused on documenting the atrocities of the armed conflict, with a focus on truth and reparation, grounding legal mechanisms such as the Justice and Peace Law of 2005; with the 2016 Peace Agreement, research expanded into more complex issues, including the interaction between transitional justice and development, and the importance of civil society and victim engagement. The inclusion of the gender perspective, particularly after the 2016 Peace Agreement, led to studies on how women and LGBTI+ communities were differentially affected by the conflict. In addition, recent research has focused on the comparison between the peace processes with the AUC and the FARC-EP, analyzing the differences in their transitional justice frameworks and the challenges of implementing these agreements in a context of persistent violence.