Maurice Cassier

Whereas Pasteur patented the biotechnological processes that he invented between 1857 and 1873 in the agro-food domain, he did not file any patents on the artificial vaccine preparation processes that he subsequently developed. This absence of patents can probably be explained by the 1844 patent law in France that established the non-patentable status of pharmaceutical preparations and remedies, including those for use in veterinary medicine. Despite the absence of patents, the commercial exploitation of the anthrax vaccine in the 1880s and 1890s led to a technical and commercial monopoly by Pasteur’s laboratory as well as the founding of a commercial company to diffuse the vaccine abroad. Pasteur repeatedly refused to transfer his know-how and anthrax vaccine production methods to foreign laboratories, on the grounds that he wished to control the quality of the vaccines produced. Indeed, it was relatively difficult to transfer a method that was not yet perfectly stabilized in the early 1880s. Pasteur also wanted to maintain the monopoly of his commercial company and to increase the profits from vaccine sales so that the Institut Pasteur could be financially independent. The ‘Pasteur anthrax vaccine’ operating licences are described and analysed in detail in this article

Gadgets : the Religion of Objects in a Comprehensively Administered Society The fall-out from commodity violence is evident in the current status of gadgets, here considered as an ideal-type. The article therefore puts forward an analysis of four instances of gadgetised subjectivity, whose interpenetrations can be located in the categorical architecture of the « new » and the « post ». The task of a psychodynamics of gadgets would therefore involve an unravelling of the links between dead objects and subjectivities converted into a mystico-positivist substance

Capitalism’s Expansion into the Realm of the Biosphere. The extension of the rule of industrial property over living organisms and their components – genes and cells, both human and non-human – since the end of the 1970s, has gone along with the emergence of new markets in science, biotechnology and in health. The article argues that the filing of patents to protect private claims on living matter is a development which promotes the establishment of a monopoly control over inventions in the fields of medicine and agronomy, while at the same time fostering a restriction in exchanges within the scientific community. The article therefore argues the case for a declaration that genomes, human and non-human, be considered as a common good, in terms both of the research carried out for the improvement of plants and health and of the accessibility of the medical innovations resulting from such research

ArgumentWhen Pasteur and Chamberland hastily set up their small biological industry to meet the agricultural demand for the anthrax vaccine, their methods for preparation and production had not yet been stabilized. The process of learning how to standardize biological products was accelerated in 1882 when vaccination accidents required the revision of production norms as the first hypotheses on fixity, inalterability, and transportability of vaccines were invalidated and replaced by procedures for continuous monitoring of the calibration of vaccines and the renewal of vaccine strains. Initially, the incompleteness and ongoing development of production standards justified Pasteur's monopoly on the production of the anthrax vaccine under his immediate supervision. Later on, the Pasteur Institute maintained control of these standards in the framework of a commercial monopoly that it established on the veterinary vaccines first sent and then cultivated abroad by the Société de Vulgarisation du Vaccin Charbonneux Pasteur, founded in 1886.