Mohammad Manzoor Malik

This article develops criticism of explanatory approaches and methods adopted in the academic study of religion, especially focusing on Émile Durkheim’s sociological approach. The study maintains that this approach is meaningful when understanding the manifestation of religion, but is not adequate to explain the causes of the emergence of religion. Explanatory approaches lead to overly simplistic definitions that are reductive. Drawing on Wilfred Cantwell Smith's idea of “faith and cumulative tradition”, the paper argues that Western definitions of religion are problematic and do not capture the diversity of global faiths. That includes Durkheim’s definition and sociological approach to religion. The paper suggests reframing Durkheim’s approach to understand how religion manifests. It argues that the core teachings of the religions are preserved and can be known by historical method, which is well elaborated by Durkheim himself in his work. Lived religions are shaped by historical, social, and cultural contexts. Durkheim believes that studying theelementary form of an indigenous religion reveals the universal origins of all religions, but this claim is challenged in this paper. Understanding the “simple form” of major faiths like Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam requires in-depth historical research into their foundational texts and the lives of their founders. Such understanding should not rely on speculative comparisons with contemporary present societies with elementary forms of indigenous religions. The article points out how groundbreaking teachings and early societal challenges contradict the notion that these religions are just reflections of collective consciousness. Instead of focusing on the origins of religion, sociological or anthropological approaches should reveal how sociological factors become essential to the cumulative tradition, influencing religion’s various theological, sectarian, and cultural forms. This change provides a deeper understanding, highlighting the dynamic relationship between fundamental religious truths and their changing societal expressions.

This article identifies the lack of a unanimous political system as the root cause of the multifaceted crises currently facing the Muslim world. Historically, the "political problem"—defined by the question of who should rule and by what right—emerged following the death of Prophet Mohammad. While the early Rashidun Caliphate utilized consultative models like shura and biaah, subsequent history shifted toward dynastic and autocratic regimes, leaving the core question of political legitimacy unresolved. The author argues that this unresolved political tension has fueled sectarianism, particularly the Sunni-Shia divide, and led to the suppression of reformist movements under the guise of theology. Unlike the West, which achieved stability through liberal democracy, many Muslim nations remain polarized between autocracy and democratic aspirations. To achieve regional cooperation and internal stability, the author proposes constitutional democracy—whether via republicanism or constitutional monarchy—as the essential solution to balance Shariah values with public representation and peaceful transitions of power.

The phenomenology of religion offers a non-reductive approach to religious studies that seeks to understand religion as sui generis. This approach, besides other features, emphasizes the suspension of presuppositions or, in other words braketing (epoché) to study religions. Building on Husserl’s foundational notions of epoché and intentionality of consciousness, major scholars in the study of religion have contributed to the phenomenology of religion. However, the phenomenology of religion faces critical challenges. The most controversial is the authenticity of epoché itself, and it is the strongest objection to it. Critics, including Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Hans-Georg Gadamer, argue that a pure suspension of presuppositions is unattainable due to the embodied, historically situated nature of human consciousness and understanding. Many scholars in the study of religion hold similar views. This paper weighs these critiques by using the phenomenological-hermeneutical method and proposes that the essence of religion or “religious worldview” may inherently require approaching religions from within their own coherent worldviews rather than striving for complete bracketing. It makes the point that bracketing makes sense when reductiveapproaches to religion are excluded. However, bracketing pre-understanding of ordinary language is not necessary; yet, the special meaning of the concepts in a religion still needs bracketing by necessity. Through comparative illustrations from Buddhism and Abrahamic religions, this study demonstrates that religious worldviews embody phenomenal characteristics and internal coherence that make strict epoché less necessary. Ultimately, the phenomenology of religion needs a balanced view recognizing the limits of methodological idealism or epoché while affirming the irreducibility of religion and its autonomous status.

In my earlier published article “What Muslim Minorities Should do in Absence of Islamic Banking and Finance?” I made a conclusion that for the economic development of Muslim minorities “the option which remains before Muslim minorities before states will make Islamic banking and finance a reality is to find a way within the given legal-financial framework with the spirit of religious values and ethics”. Any effort by Muslim minorities to enhance their economic condition and moving towards progress should be based on a social contract. ...

This work is aimed at providing an Islamic perspective on few selected informal logical fallacies. It serves an introduction to the theme of critical thinking and opens ways of reflecting on it, which is the main portion of critical thinking as a subject. Informal logical fallacies are numerous in number and for the sake of convenience they are very often categorized under three classifications: relevance, presumption, and ambiguity. This work discusses few fallacies. The methods applied in this research are descriptive, analytical, conceptual, and critical. In short, in the beginning, the background of the subject and the basic concepts such as argument, fallacy, and critical thinking are briefly mentioned. Subsequently, fallacies are defined, conceptually analyzed, and then appraised according to Islamic perspective.

Social Networking (SN) gives freedom to socialize, report, create, choose, and share usergenerated content and news. SN has become subject of researches in social sciences, however the current status of researches involving education and SN is largely one way serving educational interests and there is negligence of the role of education in developing SN ethics. As a result, SN ethics has not yet developed as a discipline or a field of study in its own right and in spite of many moral issue that have emerged from it. There is an unbreakable relation between SN and ethics. The social media aspect of SN, the socializing character of SN, and human centric nature of SN are difficult to be thought of without having an ethical framework. On the other hand, there is a role for ethics-based psychology in SN and it demands an ethical principle of freedom of speech. Due to complexities of SN ethics, it seems that its basis and foundation should be on social ethics; however, the technological nature and specific moral issues emerging from SN deserve to be addressed. And this in turn calls for responsibility of educational institutions to include SN ethics as part of social ethics.

The subject of relationship between religion and economy raises many issues. It touches the originality of religion and economy and their nature of relationship including their independence and dependence. Western scholarship on the subject has useful insights for the Muslim policy makers on religion based economy. This research undertakes Marx and Weber’s thought on the subject and relates the issue with the current reality in industrialized countries such as Singapore. The findings show that Marx is a reductionist and Weber’s thesis highlights the independent role of religion in fostering economy although he remains pessimistic regarding its religiosity. The more plausible view is that though religion is an independent variable, yet there is interdependence between religion and economy. The economical modalities influence religious life in many ways. This challenge calls Muslim policy makers for a continuous intellectual effort in making creative contributions in making religion based economy possible.

This paper identified reductionism, hasty conceptual generalization, Eurocentrism, and epistemological bias as forms of the fragmentation of knowledge. The fragmentation of knowledge goes against the philosophically Greek-based Western pattern of knowledge which was mainly in the hands of polymaths. The polymathic spirit remained until the emergence of Modernity. The emergent fragmentation of knowledge received criticism from thinkers such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Michel Foucault, Ivan Illich, Howard Gardner, Jürgen Wolfgang Habermas, and Chris B. Heilig. The division of knowledge into specializations has two-fold effects: positive such as deep specialization and negative as the loss of holistic understanding and fragmentation. There are four forms of fragmentation: (1) reductionism, (2) hasty conceptual generalization, (3) Eurocentrism, and (4) epistemological bias. Reductionism is epistemological and theoretical. Epistemological reductionism suggests that all knowledge can be reduced to a single form of explanation, whereas theoretical reductionism suggests that one theory can be reduced to or explained by another, more fundamental theory. Hasty conceptual generalization happens when a concept is extended beyond its appropriate scope, leading to the loss of the essence of the phenomenon to which the concept is applied. Eurocentrism is mainly to understand and interpret the world from a European perspective. Epistemological bias is the criticism of many epistemological errors that can be corrected by adopting mixed methods, proper hermeneutics, reflexivity, observer participation, and erosion of gender bias.

Religious believers claim their religions are peaceful and genuine believers are peacekeepers and peacemakers. In substantiating justification to their claim, they very often refer to religious scriptures. Yet, on the contrary, their claim is confronted by an opposite claim: many wars were fought and are being fought in the name of religion; and a great deal of violence can be ascribed to the religious believers. In addition, religious scriptures and history of religions do attest, to a certain extent, permissibility of using physical offence or defence. As a result, a question arises: Is the violence credited to religious believers, due to religions? Or is it because of certain secular causes in which religious texts get invoked very often? In responding to the question, the study relied on the theoretical criticism and justification. The study argued that religions, considering their historical inception, are fundamentally aimed at attaining holistic peace for their immediate subjects and subsequent followers, both spirituallyand physically. The study by referring to major religions of the world generally and Islam particularly, argued that in contributing to build global peace, religious believers can plausibly turn to primary peaceful intentions of the religions, if they are provided with a feasible atmosphere.

This study addresses the subject of Islamic ethics from definitional and disciplinary perspectives. It highlights the need for relevantization of Islamic ethics to contemporary issues in a systematic manner which, in turn, calls for development of Islamic ethics as a complete discipline with ability to meet all types of challenges: conceptual, practical, normative, applicative, etc. Regarding the definitional issue, different from and more expansive than the traditional understanding of alākhlāq, the researcher argues that a proper definition of ethics should include ethically relevant habits, character, and behavior in its subject matter. As an academic discipline of paramount, practical significance, Islamic ethics should adequately address metaethical, normative, and applicative aspects of the subject. In terms of metaethics, Islamic ethics is derived from revealed knowledge; whereas, principles of Islamic jurisprudence (usl al&fīqh) offers the best available methodology for the discipline in meeting demands of normativity and application. Regarding the nature of the subject of Islamic ethics, the researcher argues that understanding Islamic ethics as virtue ethics is unjustifiable reduction because a careful study of the subject from its sources would prove that Islamic ethics is rather an integrated field comprising of virtues ethics, divine command theory, duty&based ethics, etc. Therefore, Islamic ethics should be developed, taught, and learned as a whole composite of above&mentioned elements.

Euthanasia is one of the significant bioethical issues that has grown in complexity over time because of unprecedented developments in medicine, biotechnology, palliative care, and advanced medical technology. The issue is ethical and legal; new and old. To address this issue from the perspective of Islam, responses have emerged from various sections such as organizations of Muslim doctors, independent writers, fatwÉs, and above all from the Islamic jurisprudential bodies and Islamic medical code. œ”:In this chapter, euthanasia and its types are explained. Active euthanasia is explained with related issues which come under it and ethical guidance from the main sources of Islamic jurisprudence is taken to understand Islamic ethical position on the issue. In a similar way, passive euthanasia is explained and the issues which come under it are explained and a detailed discourse is given in understanding the issues and how Islamic approach to medical treatment solves these issues.

Creativity and innovation is very part of human nature (fitrah) which makes human beings different from other beings that are so far found on the planet. The outcome of creativity can be both harmful and beneficial. And most of it depends on the moral standing of those to whom end products of such creativity are available. Islam gives high importance to health and the Muslim civilization that flourished in Bagdad and Spain during the medieval period made original contributions to medical science. The contributions of the scholars of the age were led by religious ethics and spirit in pursuing, using, and creating knowledge. On the other hand, with the advent of modernity, science has received freedom to a greater extent to be ethics-free, neutral, and value- free. This approach has produced new important innovations in medical science and ways of their applications. Some of these innovations and their applications are beneficial and some others are beneficial too if guarded by appropriate ethics, yet some of the applications are questionable. After discussing the ethical repercussions of these innovations and applications, a general ethical framework on the subject is formulated on Islamic guidelines

Mercy is central to the very identity of Islam, yet this is not often recognized by theologians and scholars. This paper will demonstrate that the idea of mercy is important as a prelude to the understanding of Islam and an interpretation of its teachings. This important role of mercy is evident in Islam’s primary sources – the Quran and the Sunnah – and is not contingent on political, social, or historical contexts. It is well recognized that the proper comprehension of Islam hinges on grasping the attributes of God, his divine message, and the character of his messenger. But what is often overlooked is that these aspects are fundamentally rooted in mercy. Islam encourages its followers to cultivate merciful virtues. It emphasizes that the compassionate nature of the faith should always precede the understanding and interpretation of its teachings. As a result, Muslims are encouraged to nurture a compassionate self, foster a benevolent mindset and approach, and anchor their religious obedience in the spirit of mercy. While followers of Islam are responsible for upholding this ethos, external observers too should try to view the religion fairly based upon this recognition of the centrality of mercy.

James Rachels’s distinction between killing and letting die maintains that there is morally no difference between killing a terminally ill patient and letting him/her die. Therefore, active and passive euthanasia dichotomy is a distinction without a difference. Hence, if passive euthanasia is allowed, active euthanasia should be permitted too. The paper demonstrated that the distinction between killing and letting die is: (1) irrelevant to euthanasia(2) extraneous to the medical profession, and (3) methodologically degressive. Furthermore, the paper demonstrated invalidity of the bare difference argument of Rachels based on the distinction because of four reasons: (1) irrelevance to American Medical Association’s statement; (2) differences between the cases such as intentionality, causality, and agency; (3) straw man fallacy, (4) and weak analogy. Therefore, the paper concluded that relating the distinction between killings and letting die to bioethics and euthanasia is unjustifiable.

This study demonstrates that there is a need of addressing neighborhood relationships in contemporary times. And in this regard, a position from Islam is considered in which neighborly relationships are based on Quranic ethical virtue ihsan i.e., doing good to others. The word neighbor in the Quran and Hadith is a general term that is not discriminatory. It includes Muslims and non-Muslims. This insight is very useful for building relationships in multicultural and multireligious communities for harmony and peace. To locate a neighbor, though there are jurisprudential opinions, leaving it to its customary use is preferred in this study. The neighborhood rights and duties are given in detail. And it is also demonstrated that those prophetic narrations in which harming neighbors or committing sins against them is considered as the consequence of the absence of faith in fact show the disgust of such sinful acts; therefore, a sinful Muslim is not considered as a non-believer. The harm is especially illustrated with infringing the privacy of a neighbor. It has been shown that Ihsan includes ethically both non-maleficence and beneficence. Most of the prophetic traditions can be classified under these two categories. In addition to this, it is also shown that the neighborhood relations in Islam also include the Golden Rule which is allencompassing and in principle exhaustive.

Patient autonomy has a critical role in making decisions in medical practice and it is accepted by international conventions on health care and various national medical codes. However, pertaining to terminally ill patients, this right becomes very problematic in regards to end of life decisions. Utilitarian ethicists motivated by materialistic worldview and individualism have made patient autonomy based arguments for the permissibility of active euthanasia. An appraisal of pro-euthanasia arguments that include the best interest, golden rule, and autonomy is made in this paper. The best interest and golden rule arguments are based on subjective moral judgment thus failing the universalization test. The argument from autonomy is unconvincing because of the confounded autonomy of the terminally ill patients.

The importance of the self (nafas) with which heart is assumed to be connected is significantly present in Islamic ethics that could be derived from the primary sources of Islam, the scripture and Sunnah. However, the human heart (Qalb) is in need of further exploration concerning its relationship to ethics. Ethics is part of the Islamic worldview and authentic ethical behavior in such a worldview is connected to intentionality which is an attribute of the heart. The Islamic sources show that the sound heart is at the center of an ethical agent that is free of vices, and the strength and motivation for good actions originate from the heart by the virtue of belief, Iman. Therefore, the right ethical behavior emanates from the heart. The important point is that intentionality as the property of the heart matters in Islamic ethics because ethical accountability is ultimately before God in Islam. Therefore, there is a responsibility for a Muslim to safeguard his heart from temptations and vices. Hearts can get ethically sick and one reason for such sickness and hardness could be because of committing sins repeatedly which are mostly unethical actions by their very nature. Therefore, a Muslim should keep his heart clean from vices. In ethical decision-making, the heart plays its role as its purity will lead to good actions and better understanding. The heart has intellectual and cognitive powers that can help in making ethical decisions.

This study attempts an exposition of different perceptions of obligation to medical treatment that have emerged from the Islamic theological understanding and how they contribute to diversity of options and flexibility in clinical practice. Particularly, an attempt is made to formulate an Islamic perspective on ordinary and extraordinary means of medical treatment. This distinction is of practical significance in clinical practice, and its right understanding is also important to public funded healthcare authorities, guardians of the patients, health and life insurance institutions, and employers who provide health care coverage to their employees. Not only these parties, but also lawyers and justice administration functionaries such as public prosecutors and judges are in need of understanding this distinction to deal with relevant litigations. The distinction could be made regarding terminally ill patients and non-terminally ill patients separately. The essential factors that matter in making the distinction between ordinary and extraordinary means of treatment are: (1) patient capacity (2) expert advice, and (3) nature of medication. Regarding terminally ill patients, medical treatment can become extraordinary because of (1) patient capacity and (2) nature of medication. In both these case the deciding condition applies: the expert advice taken from a group of physicians. In regards to non- terminally ill patients, extraordinary medical treatment includes three cases: (1) treatment that is known to be useless and futile, (2) treatment that endangers the life or cause more harm than what it removes, and (3) useful treatment, but the patient is unable to bear the cost.

Pain medication is one of the responses to the mercy argument that utilitarian ethicists use for justifying active euthanasia on the grounds of prevention of cruelty and appeal to beneficence. The researcher reinforces the significance of pain medication in meeting this challenge and considers it the most preferred response among various other responses. It is because of its realism and effectiveness. In exploring the mechanism and considerations related to pain medication, the researcher briefly touches the Catholic ethical position on the issue, a position that cannot be ignored in the development of contemporary bioethics. The researcher particularly deliberates on the contemporary Islamic discourse on the issue; by furthering the debate in line with the Islamic legal maxims and general guidance from the primary sources of Islamic law and ethics. The resolution on the issue is sought by synthesizing the views and legal maxims (al-Qawaid al-Fiqhiyyah) on the issue, which in conclusion provide justification for pain medication by considerably regarding pain as necessity and pressing need. However, such resolution allows pain medication to the limit and proportion that removes the pain and prohibits overdosing the patient with medication that may directly cause the death.

There are common concepts between euthanasia and suicide because euthanasia is historically connected with the discourse on suicide. In widespread literature on euthanasia there is confusion over the concepts and definitions. These definitions are analyzed in this paper and along with other conclusions and distinctions the researcher has substantially defended his definition of euthanasia. There are two different usages of the term euthanasia: a narrow construal of euthanasia and broad construal of euthanasia. Contrary to other researches, the researcher agrees only with the narrow construal of euthanasia, i.e. active euthanasia. The researcher’s definition of euthanasia is: intentionally causing a terminally ill person’s death through an action performed by a physician. As a result, passive euthanasia is expunged from the definition of euthanasia. In addition to that, the definition excludes suicide, assisted suicide, and physician-assisted suicide.

An Islamic approach from its theological sources to address the spiritual pain related to palliative care of terminally ill patients can be established on attaining a spiritual stage of soul or spirit termed as reassured soul. The attainment of such stage is based on hope of the patient to receive mercy and forgiveness of God. And the way of attainment of hope is possible by doing the repentance, praying, and patience. In combating the pain and suffering, the patient is supposed to understand that the life in its reality is a test and facing such a test is possible by two ways, one is patient centric by building patience within to endure the suffering and second is seeking help from God by praying. For the spiritual wellbeing, the patient should understand that his suffering is in fact expiation for his sins. On the other hand, the visitors and caregivers of patients have certain responsibilities that contribute to enhancing of the spiritual well-being of the patient, including comforting them by giving hope to the patients and at the same time praying for their recovery. These all elements enhance the spiritual well-being of patients and help in prevention of suffering by spiritual means.

Objective :This research aims at the constructing a basic perspective on critical thinking in line with Islamic principles with a brief explanation of such principles. Methodology :This study uses exegetical methods, by studying the relevant parts of the religious texts and systemizing the information in a critical way. Research findings: The research demonstrates that the principles for constructing an Islamic critical thinking perspective are found in the primary sources of Islam. The knowledge (العلم ;al-'ilm) makes the core of Islamic critical thinking, and means of such knowledge are the revelation (الوحي; al-wahy), the use of senses (احلواس ;al-hawas), intellect (reason and heart, القلب و العقل ;al-aql wa al-qalb), historical experience or testimony (اوالشهادة السياحة ;al-siyahah aw al-shidah), and meditating on the natural and physical world (الكون ;al-kaun). There are other means such as prophetic dreams (الصادقة الرؤاي ;al-ruya al-sadiqah), insight (الفراسة ;al-firasah), illumination ( املكاشفة; al-mukashafah), and inspiration ( االهلام; al-ilham), though they are dismissed to account for any scholarly opinion or position and thus they remain non-binding according to Shariah. However, they can be a gift of a genius mind that is extraordinarily critical, helping such minds in understanding and creativity. Critical thinking includes using many human faculties and the Quran frequently emphasizes contemplation التفكر ;al-tafakur), reflection (التدبر ;at-tadabbur), understanding التفقه; at-tafaqquh), and reasoning (التعقل ;at-taakul); and these concepts are the foundations of critical thinking which could be developed and elaborated in many ways. Applications: The need of having an Islamic construction of critical thinking is because of the special worldview of Islam and its conception of knowledge which treats revelation (الوحي ;al-wahy) as the primary source of belief and knowledge. The findings of the study can be useful in fashioning a basic curriculum for critical thinking for Islamic educational institutions.