Mykola Nesprava

In M.Nesprava’s article "Theoretical Foundations of Radical Salafism", the presence of a conceptual core in the radical Salafism doctrine is shown and the main formation stages of this core are analyzed. Also, the role of the ideas by such authors as Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al- Wahhab, Syed Abul A'la Maududi and Sayyid Qutb in the formation of the conceptual core is argued. The characteristic aspects of the interpretation by radical Salafists of such concepts as tawhid, takfir and jihad are demonstrated.

This study analyzed the main scientific theories concerning the religion’s influences on the economic and integration processes. Author focuses attention on the researches carried out on the methodology of social constructivism. This conception emerged as an alternative to realism, liberalism and marxism. These originally spiritually saturated theories eventually transformed to the doctrines, the practical implementation of which led to social and economic crises and conflicts. The statement that social reality is valuable and culturally peculiar appears as the cornerstone of constructivism. Following the Weber’s concept in the researches of religion’s influences on the processes of economic development and integration, social constructivism has critically reworked it. Author identifies three main areas of researches within the framework of this paradigm. In the first area scientists study the influence of religious ideas on the welfare of the population through their interconnection with economic, political and cultural institutions. In the second area explorers analyse the role of religious activity in the formation of subjective assessments of external environment and internal reflection as the factors of economic productivity and social consolidation. In the third area researchers define the value potential of Christianity and its various confessions in the processes of European integration. Summarizing the conclusions of these studies, author shows that the opinion, on which religious norms and institutions continue to influence economic activity, despite the process of secularization in the European Union countries, is established in the framework of social constructivism paradigm. At the same time, constructivists argue that the influence of religious principles on economic development and European integration processes has a complex differential and multiplicative character, which determines the relationship between social actors in the economic, political and cultural spheres both directly and indirectly. Scientistsconstructivists discover the fact that the Christian faith, which has formed unique European ethos, today acts as an existential factor in European integration.

In the twenty-first century Radical Salafism is a serious danger for Muslim countries and Western countries too due to some features of its religious ideas, which lead to extremist actions. Among the critics of radical Salafism there are both Western and Muslim scholars, but the arguments of the latter are not well-known in the West. The benefits of this study are systematization and analysis of prominent Muslim scholars’ criticism towards radical Salafism. The study analyzed ideas of such modern Muslim thinkers and researchers as Mohamed Said Ramadan Al-Bouti and Rawil Gaynetdin on radical Salafism. The research argued that the Muslim scholars criticize, first of all, the following four features of radical Salafism. The first of them is Salafi movement’s claim for existence of historical basis of their words about the special status of Salafism in Islam as the only defender of initial purity of Islam. The second one is radical Salafism’s criticism towards innovations in the religion and life of Muslims. The third feature is radical Salafism’s practice of takfir (accusation of unbelief). The fourth one is radical Salafists’ intolerance of people with other opinions on religion and life. The study showed that the Muslim scholars have thought that Salafism occurred much later than the Salaf era. Rawil Gainutdin believes this occurred in the tenth century, and Mohamed Said Ramadan Al-Bouti argues that it happened only in the nineteenth century. Moreover, Al-Bouti emphasizes that, firstly, the salafs assumed the possibility of certain innovations and, secondly, Salafism is one of the nineteenth century innovations. Also Rawil Gainutdin indicated that the Judge of the Judgment Day is the one person who can declare a takfir. Consequently, radical salafists’ practice of takfir is a violation of Islam law. The Muslim scholars point out that radical Salafism’s position is harmful to Muslim Ummah, because it leads to numerous conflicts. For example, Mohamed Said Ramadan Al-Bouti explains that radical salafists split Muslim community and cause tension among Muslims. He analyzed numerous facts of such a destructive action of radical Salafism towards religious, social and personal life of Muslims. Moreover, the article shows the destructive nature of Jihadist Salafism.

The question of studying the metamorphosis of Europeans’ perception of the Islam is a topical issue now, because it helps to better understand the religious processes in modern Europe. Reconstructing the image of Islam in the ideas of the Christian peoples of the medieval Europe is the purpose of the study. To achieve this aim, I have used such methods as historical method, logical method, analysis, and hermeneutics. The research discusses the ideas of such authors as W.M. Watt, A.K.S Lambton, W. B. Hallaq, I. P. Dobaev, P. Veimar and others. I have identified four components of the medieval image of Islam in Europe. Firstly, it is the idea of alienation of Islam and Muslims for European countries. I have showed that this idea was a result of two facts: (1) Muslim-Christian wars of this period; (2) absence of assimilation processes of Muslim population in European countries. The second component is the thought that Europeans can learn Muslim ideas and technologies. During the middle ages Europeans borrowed from Muslims a lot of important knowledge, ideas and techniques, as well as Muslims from Europeans. I argue that the idea, that Muslim religion is something incompatible with Christianity, is the third component of the image of Islam by Christian Europeans of the Middle Ages. In particular, Thomas Aquinas rejects the idea that Muslims, Jews and Christians have a common Scripture. According to him, Muhammad’s religion did not have worthy confirmation of the truth of the teachings. Thomas Aquinas interpreted the fact that great masses of people believed in Islam by suggestion that Islam appeals to the carnal desires of people, offering polygamy and the idea of physical pleasures in the paradise. Also, Thomas points out that Islam is a religion of sword and violence. Also, I have argued that a fear of large masses of Muslim population and their military successes was the fourth component in the image of Muslims by Europeans in the Middle Ages.

The study attempts to reveal the prospects of the idea of a caliphate in the Muslim world. Having used analysis and phenomenology, the research found the following results. Firstly, the idea of a caliphate will play a significant role in the Islamic world in the future. It will happen in any variant of the future of the self-proclaimed caliphate “Islamic State”. Because the idea of a caliphate is inherent to Islam and it did not become an archaism in the framework of this religion. Secondly, in the modern world, the implementation of the idea of a caliphate is linked closely to longstanding bloody wars. The causes of this phenomenon are related to the religious beliefs of the Sunni Salafists, who are the main promoters of the caliphate in the 21st century idea. Thirdly, in case Islamic State caliphate, created in 2014, does not change its destructive and expansionist policies fundamentally, it will be eliminated. An idea of caliphate will survive, though.

У статті запропонована типологія дій ісламських терористів в Європі перших двох десятиліть ХХІ століття. Досліджено термінологічний аспект проблеми. Охарактеризовані особливості сучасних проявів релігійного радикалізму. Показані ідеологічні та організаційні структурні елементи релігійного екстремізму джихадистських терористів. Доведено, що цей екстремізм несе у собі ознаки релігійного конфлікту і є загрозою для безпеки європейців усіх віросповідань Ключові слова: релігійний екстремізм ісламський тероризм, джихадизм, моральні цінності, європейська безпека

Процес спілкування та співробітництва між православними та католицькою Церквами, що розгорнувся із середини 60-х років ХХ сторіччя, розглянуто як відповідь на глобальні виклики людству, в першу чергу на загрози війн і тероризму. Наукова новизна роботи полягає у тому, що автор на основі власного аналізу першоджерел – офіційних документів і промов лідерів православних і католицької Церков – розкриває особливості миротворчого потенціалу діалогу милосердя, як називають сучасну православно-католицьку комунікацію. У даному контексті показані основні організаційні форми міжцерковного діалогу та охарактеризовані особливості його змістовного наповнення у ХХІ столітті. Автор стверджує, що ціннісними основами цієї комунікації виступають євангельські любов, милосердя та повага до кожної людини як Божого творіння, котрі слугують потужними духовними засобами у протистоянні злу і насильству. Він доводить, що подальше об’єднання зусиль християнських Церков сприятиме посиленню їхньої ролі у припиненні війн і перемозі над тероризмом.

The study deals with terrorist, historical, cultural, economic, militaristic, political and secular factors of the popularity of Islamophobia in the countries of the Western world. Religiously motivated terrorist acts, which in recent times have been taking place in the Western countries, are the first factor. The presence of a historical basis of the Muslim-European confrontation is the second factor. The conflict of identities, which we can observe in the West countries between the local population and Muslim migrants, is the third factor. Fourthly, many European citizens consider Muslim migrants as persons who hold a significant part of their taxes. The modern wars in the territories of the Muslim states are the fifth factor. The political ambitions of the rightwing forces in the West are the sixth factor. Religionophobia that is popular in some European countries is the seventh factor.

The explication, systematization and analysis of the most influential scenarios of Islam development in Europe is the purpose of this study. To achieve this aim, such research methods as analysis and synthesis are used. The study argues that in the research literature there are at least three scenarios of possible development in Europe in the context of the Islamic issue. Firstly, there is a scenario of the success of the multiculturalism ideas. Secondly, there is a scenario of «velvet» Islamization of Europe. Thirdly, there is a scenario of the radical Islamization of Europe. The study demonstrates that there are two differences between the third and the second scenarios. The intensity of the Islamization process is the first difference. The design of the Islamization is the second difference. In the framework of the ‘velvet’ scenario, Islamization is supported by the traditional European population. However in the terms of the radical scenario, Islamization will occur contrary to the will of this population. It has also been shown that all three scenarios have its weaknesses

Obtaining data on the results of the study of Ukrainian scholars on radical Jihadism is the purpose of this study. To achieve this goal, the study uses analysis and hermeneutics as its research methods. The research found that in the Ukrainian Islamic studies, there are now five main areas of research: theoretical, historical, social, economical and the area of security provision. In Ukraine, the problem of radical Jihadism is considered within the framework of the security research direction. The study showed that the security trend in Ukrainian Islamic studies is still poorly presented. A few studies have been written on this topic. Among the authors dealing with this problem, it is necessary to name such researchers as M. Azarov, S. Zin’ko, M. Kiryushko, S. Kuzmin, O. Licarenko, V. Ostroukhov, and V. Petryk. In particular, V. Ostroukhov, O. Likarenko, and V. Petrik identified six signs that separate Islamist extremism from moderate Islam. S. Zin’ko argued that Europe has not yet developed a pan–European approach to counteracting radical Islam. The implementation of large–scale scientific research projects on the study of the dangers of radical Jihadism is still ahead in Ukraine.

The exploration of the current understanding the concept of Euro-Islam by researchers is the purpose of this study. To achieve this, we used such methods as analysis and phenomenology. The study analyzed works of the following authors: T. Ramadan, B. Tibi, N. AlSayyad, D. Davydova, L. Koroleva, A. March, A. Mykhal’ova, O. Roy, A. Sadykhova. We have shown that ideas of Euro-Islam have not received widespread support among Muslims in Europe quarter a century after they were expressed by Tariq Ramadan. We also argued that the concept of Euro- Islam has a significant potential to reduce jihadist radicalism in Europe if it is perceived by European Muslims. We have shown that if this concept is adopted by Muslims in Europe, they will turn into a powerful force in the political and social life of Europe.

The research argued that in the second part of the 20th century, significant changes happened in the method-ology of religious studies. Firstly, active efforts were made to create a methodology that could provide the scien-tific character of the results of religious studies. Secondly, religious studies actively began to involve the methods of sociology, as well as the philosophical phenomenology of religion. The study showed that these changes had become an important, productive step in horizon of the challenges that the religious studies faced in the 21st cen-tury.

Цель. Исследование направлено на получение данных об образе человека в исламе посредством осмысления соответствующих представлений как классических направлений мусульманской религии, так и установок мистического направления ислама – суфизма. Достижение данной цели предусматривает применение таких методов, как философский анализ, компаративный метод, феноменологию, а также последовательное решение следующих задач: а) проанализировать основные манифестации антропологических представлений ислама; б) осмыслить специфику мусульманских идей о человеке по сравнению с соответствующим христианским учением; в) рассмотреть разногласия между толкованием сущности и задач человека в классическом исламе и суфизме. Теоретический базис. Автор исходит из неудовлетворительности поверхностного толкования проблемы образа человека в исламе, которое часто трактует человека исключительно как «раба Аллаха», упуская из виду двухмерность метафизического статуса человека в исламе, а также полипарадигмальнисть образа человека в разных направлениях ислама. Научная новизна. Автором уточнён образ человека в исламе в двух аспектах: во-первых, в аспекте его концептуального содержания, а во-вторых, в аспекте его парадигмального разнообразия. Выводы. Распространённые среди исследователей представления об антропологической компоненте ислама недостаточно основательны, поскольку часто они не учитывают неоднозначность и многомерность идей мусульманской религии относительно человека. Как было показано, общеисламские представления о метафизическом статусе человека включают в себя два измерения – человек толкуется как «раб Аллаха», а также как «наместник Аллаха». В рамках этого восприятия сущности человека имеются различные парадигмы толкования сферы преимущественного выполнения обязанностей человека как раба и наместника – экстерналистская и интерналистская. Было показано, что тема образа человека в исламе все еще недостаточно изучена и требует дальнейших исследований. Наиболее продуктивными направлениями этой дальнейшей исследовательской работы является осмысление имеющихся в салафистской и шиитской разновидностях ислама представлений о человеке, его сущности и задачах.

У статті розкриті екзистенціальні причини насильства та визначені його сутнісні характеристики з позицій християнської онтолого-аксіологічної парадигми. Проаналізовані основні біблійні постулати щодо природи та сутності добра і зла. Представлено тлумачення добра як свободи, обмеженої лише Божими заповідями. Показано, що онтологічною передумовою виникнення проблеми добра і зла є діалектичне співвідношення двох чинників: Божого закону і людської свободи. Окреслені ключові позиції взаємозв’язку між злом, гріхом та насильством. Визначено, що гріх – це зловживання свободою, яке виражається у порушенні людиною Божих заповідей, тобто це свідомий вибір на користь зла. Встановлено, що першопричиною насильства було гріхопадіння, а існування насильства у сучасному світі зумовлено зневірою. Виявлено відмінність у трактуванні та оціненні насильства. Показано, що у Старому заповіті насильство розглядається не лише як зло, а й як необхідне покарання за гріх або справедлива помста. Напроти, християнська онтолого-аксіологічна парадигма, визнаючи у певних випадках припустимість насильства для боротьби з конкретними проявами гріховного зла, постулює ненасильство як моральний обов’язок. Дана позиція базується на євангельських заповідях, за якими добро означає любов, милосердя і прощення. Із цієї позиції проведено порівняння концепції непротивлення злу насильством та концепції допустимості силового спротиву. Розкрито значення умовиводу християнських філософів, що лише перемога над злом у своїй душі відкриває людині можливість справедливого застосування сили. З’ясовано, що проблема насильства набуває особливої складності внаслідок суб’єктивності оцінки добра і зла як соціальних явищ. Аргументована наявність сутнісної диференціації між гріховним і негріховним насильством. Запропоновані критерії, за котрими насильство слід класифікувати як негріховне. Доведено, що насильство, ґенеза якого онтологічно пов’язана зі злом, втім, може бути визначене як негріховне та мати певне виправдання з позицій християнської аксіології якщо воно: по-перше, має характер попередження або протидії, а не помсти; по-друге, не принижує гідність людини; по-третє і головне, скероване вищими постулатами любові, а не боротьбою за матеріальні цінності або соціально-політичні чи релігійні ідеали як такі.

In M.Nesprava’s article "Theoretical Foundations of Radical Salafism", the presence of a conceptual core in the radical Salafism doctrine is shown and the main formation stages of this core are analyzed. Also, the role of the ideas by such authors as Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Muhammad ibn ʿAbd alWahhab, Syed Abul A'la Maududi and Sayyid Qutb in the formation of the conceptual core is argued. The characteristic aspects of the interpretation by radical Salafists of such concepts as tawhid, takfir and jihad are demonstrated.

Purpose. The study aims to obtaine data about the human image in Islam through thought of the respective visions of both the classical directions of the Muslim religion and the attitudes of Islamic mysticism (Sufism). Achievement of this goal involves the application of methods such as philosophical analysis, comparative method, phenomenology, as well as the consistent solution of the following tasks: a) to analyze the main manifestations of anthropological ideas in Islam; b) to comprehend the specificity of Muslim ideas about a human in comparison with the corresponding Christian teaching; c) to consider disagreements between the interpretation of the essence and tasks of a human in the classical Islam and Sufism. Theoretical basis. The author proceedes from the unsatisfactory nature of the superficial interpretation of the human image in Islam, according to which a human is often expounded as a «slave of Allah», neglecting the multidimensionality of the metaphysical status of a human in Islam, as well as the polyparadigmality of the human image in various Islam directons. Originality. The author refines the human image in Islam in two aspects: first – in the aspect of his conceptual content and secondly – in the aspect of his paradigmatic diversity. Conclusions. The widespread beliefs among the researchers concerning the anthropological component of Islam are not sufficiently substantiated, since they often do not take into account the ambiguity and multidimensionality of the ideas of the Muslim religion towards a human. As it has been shown, the general Muslim ideas about the metaphysical status of a human include two dimensions – a human is interpreted as «the slave of Allah», as well as "the vicegerent of Allah". Within this perception of the human nature there are two various paradigms for interpreting the sphere of preferential fulfillment of a human's duties as the slave and the vicegerent. The first one is used by the classical Islam, it was called the externalistic paradigm. The internalistic paradigm is used by Sufism. The author presents that the theme of the human image in Islam is still not sufficiently studied and it requires further research. The comprehension of the existing in Salafist and Shiite varieties of Islam concerning the human nature interpretation and their essence and tasks are the most productive areas of such further research.

Alain Badiou’s philosophical views study is an important philosophical task. This author is one of the most profound philosophers of our time. Especially important is the study of Badiou’s ideas which helps to determine grounds of destructive phenomena in contemporary society. There is a number of researchers who are interested in Badiou’s philosophy. For instance, Kathleen R. Kesson, James G. Henderson, Oliver Marchart, Hollis Phelps, Viktor Okorokov, Vitaliy Kosyhin, Svitlana Solovyova, and others. However, the researchers usually do not pay big attention to the study of Badiou’s ideas about causes of evil. This article is aimed at the analysis and explication of such ideas. It has been proved that Badiou describes the idea that evil manifests itself as an obstacle in processes of the truth. Badiou considers that there are subjects of evil in society. According to Alain Badiou, the subjects of evil interrupt processes of the truth by their own personal interests. It has been shown in the article that Badiou believes in the existence of four procedures that produce the truth. It is politics, poem, math and love. In politics, the goodness is equality. In arts, it exemplifies the invention of new forms. In science, the goodness constitutes free thought. In love, the good means the understanding of the needs of other person. Badiou considers that a process of the truth has three dimensions. The event that caused the creation of something new is the first dimension of the process of the truth. At this dimension evil appears as ‘mask or terror.’ This kind of evil tries to prove that the new one is not better then the old one. According to Badiou, fidelity to the event is the second dimension of a process of the truth. In this dimension evil appears as ‘betrayal.’ The truth’s strictly speaking is the third dimension of a process of the truth. In this dimension evil appears as ‘catastrophe.’ This kind of evil tries to identify the truth with a certain total power. Effective fight with the evil, by the opinion of A. Badiou, can only be based on that particular kind of truth, which is trying to discredit a particular kind of evil. According to Alain Badiou, the universal ideas like the ideas of human rights would be powerless to fight evil. The best mean for such fighting is to remain faithful to the truth.

The purpose of our article is to address the heuristic potential of E. Norton’s theory about the Muslim factor in Europe. In order to achieve this aim, research methods such as analysis, phenomenology, and hermeneutics were used. We showed that E. Norton’s theory of the Muslim factor in Europe has three key points. Firstly, Norton appeals to the guilt of Europeans, pointing to the criminal acts of some European regimes against Jews during the first half of the twentieth century. Norton argues that contemporary Europeans are doing similar actions against Muslims. Secondly, E. Norton argues that modern European countries are not really democratic. Finally, E. Norton asserts that European victims of jihadist terrorism are to blame for having been killed. As we have shown, the theoretical constructs of E. Norton are logically inconsistent. Moreover, some of them go beyond the framework of ethical norms. Instead of facts or other proven data, Norton’s theory relies on stereotypes, archaisms, and too bold assumptions. E. Norton uses incorrect comparisons, and her discourse is devoid of impartiality. Norton’s theory of the Muslim factor is an apologetic rather than an objective theory.

The research of the Sayyid Qutb’s book “Milestones Along the Way” argued that Qutb’s doctrine is dangerous. Firstly, this doctrine aims to achieve world domination by military means. Secondly, it incites religious hatred against the huge masses of people. Thirdly, this doctrine justifies religious wars. Fourthly, it agitates for the establishment of a totalitarian society. Fifthly, it offers training techniques for religious extremists. Sayyid Qutb proclaims an offensive military jihad as the main mean to achieve his goals. Sayyid Qutb emphasizes that the jihad has to subjugate the whole world and captured peoples have either to become Muslims, or to pay tributes (jizya) during all life. Moreover, the study found the three causes of the failure of Sayyid Qutb’s doctrine. Firstly, this doctrine is based on manipulations and quoting Muhammad’s words out of their context. Secondly, Sayyid Qutb’s doctrine declares the war toward the whole world and attempts to implement this idea will inevitably lead to defeat. Thirdly, it seeks to force the 21st century people live according to the norms of the seventh century people and it obviously is a utopia. Also, the study argued that Qutb’s ideas are dangerous not only to non-Muslim people, but also to Muslims. Firstly, Sayyid Qutb offers Muslims to fight against their own Muslim states. This idea would provoke civic, fratricidal wars in Muslim countries. Secondly, Qutb opposes the classic Islam doctrine, offering his own understanding of Islam instead. Well-known Muslim scholars criticize points of Qutb’s understanding. Thirdly, radical attempts to implement Sayyid Qutb’s doctrine set people from different countries against Islam, because these radicals hide behind the name of Islam. Sayyid Qutb regards our time as an arena for the relapse of the events that took place in the seventh century, when salafs (the first Muslims) increased the Islamic theocratic state ownership from one oasis in the desert to vast areas stretching from India to the Atlantic Ocean. Qutb believes that all the twentieth century counties without exception (both non-Muslim counties and Muslim ones) are in the state of pagan ignorance now. He emphasizes that this state requires immediate relapse of the events of more than a thousand years ago - when Muslim warriors carried Islam by sword in all the land which they were able to conquer.

Modern researchers use the term 'radical jihadism' actively; however the meaning of the term is not clear. A problem of clarifying this term is vital for philosophical and religious studies area. Purpose. Identification of the main features of radical jihadism is the purpose of this study. Methods. The study uses analysis and phenomenology as its methods. Results. Firstly, we argued that radical jihadism is an absolutely unacceptable ideology that propagates murders and violence. Secondly, we demonstrated that radical jihadism can not be seen as a manifestation of the right of peoples to military protection, because it proclaims not a defensive, but an offensive and total war towards both the military and civilians. Thirdly, we showed that radical jihadism is a fundamentally religious ideology directed primarily against representatives of Judaism and Christianity. Originality. The originality of our study is that it summarizes the available information, considering radical jihadism as a holistic phenomenon. We analyzed ideas and data of such researchers, as O. Ashour, I. Antonovich J. M. Brachman, A. Boukhars, G. Mirskiy, R. Nesipbay, E. Saltman, J. Turner, T. Hegghammer, F. Khosrokhavar and C. Hewitt. Particularly, we analysed J.Turner's thoughts about the evolution of Salafi-Jihadism; E. M. Saltman’s and C. Winter’s ideas about the changing face of modern jihadism; and C. Hewitt’s cross-national analysis of Jihadism. Conclusion. We stated that radical jihadism is a fundamentally religious theory and practices which instigating and practicing a religiously motivated war as their aim fist of all against Christians, Jews and those Muslims, who do not believe in radical salafites’ doctrine.

The research found the following perspectives of the development of Is-lam in Europe. First, the facts of religious extremism and jihadist terrorism in Europe will not go down, but will only intensify. Secondly, considering the statistical analysis of population growth in Muslim countries conducted in the research, the ethnic and religious composi-tion of Europe's population will change significantly, as the indigenous popula-tion will decline year after year, freeing up space for migrants and migrant children from Muslim countries whose territories are already overpopulated significantly. Thirdly, the Muslim population will play an increasingly important role in the political and social life of Europe, first thanks to its strength and unity of religious doctrine. In current trends, in order to avoid religious and other conflicts, some re-searchers hope for a dialogue between Islam and Christianity. However, the success of such a dialogue is doubtful due to strong differences in religious doctrines, as well as a sharp decline of the West religiosity index along with an increase of Muslim believers number. In order not to be completely «washed away» by the rush wave of Islam, Western civilization needs a strong unifying and strengthening factor, which has always been Christianity