Ron Welters

This essay advances a philosophical concept of cosmic sport, understood as auto-agonistic physical activity striving for harmony with the natural elements and the environment. The emphasis is on the importance of hefty psycho-physical challenges, such as endurance sports, notably long trail-running. In times of climate change and mass extinction, pushing our limits leads to a positive recalibration with our living environment, I argue. The higher the effort, the closer the connection with and the sense of responsibility towards nature. To lay a foundation, two views on homo movens and sustainability will be discussed. First, the grasshopper-like, broadly oriented, hilarious ecosophical-playful perspective. And, second, the monomaniac, ant-like, titillating ascetological-painful perspective, referring to human beings as natural-born exercise addicts, ever longing for vertical challenges. To materialize my preference for the latter view, a specific sport will be put to the test: extreme trail-running. These in-vogue hour- or even day-long challenging trials off the beaten track have special benefits when it comes to taking us back where we evolutionary come from, and in terms of sustainability, as far as possible should return to. That is, the life of the long-distance running hunter, the industrious worker ant with a low ecological footprint. Well-performed deep immersion in extreme ascetic practices results in truly sustainable, cosmic sport.

What is the good life? Or: how are we to live? Since ancient times the answer to this question usually is that we must work on ourselves and improve ourselves by way of training. This practical and practiced philosophical investigation will focus on one particular dimension of this striving for human perfection by means of ‘asceticism’ (a derivative from the ancient Greek askēsis, meaning exercise or training): endurance sports, such as long distance running, cycling and triathlon. These are all sports that flourish by dedicated training rather than sheer motor talent, which makes them not only accessible but also increasingly popular among the crowd.Especially the phenomenon of cycling has brought endurance sport within reach of the masses. Almost everyone can ride and afford a bicycle, a high tech artefact, which according to Ivan Illich “outstrips the efficiency of not only all machines but all other animals as well” (Energy & equity. Harper & Collins, New York, 1974, p. 60). This energetic economy makes the bicycle a straightforward tool for a more sustainable lifestyle. But the stakes of a life that is to be fully lived in endurance are higher. How can endurance sport at large and cycling in particular contribute not only to self-knowledge, but also to self-improvement and to sustainability?Because of its competitiveness and agonistic characteristic—at first sight the very opposite of peaceful sustainable coexistence—sport usually has a negative connotation in environmental philosophy or ‘ecosophy’ (a contraction of ecology and philosophy), a term coined by Arne Naess in the seventies and applied to sport by Sigmund Loland in the nineties. Inspired by Loland’s attempt to sketch an ecosophy of sport, and strengthened by Peter Sloterdijk’s analysis of man as an upwardly oriented training animal, set forth in You must Change your Life: On Anthropotechnics (2009/2013), as well as insights from historical phenomenology (or ‘metabletics’), hermeneutics and pragmatism, I will argue for a vertically challenged life in what William James has called ‘the strenuous mood’: serious and hard pushing, instead of pedalling around just a little. This results in an upwardly oriented ecosophical life, leading to qualitative growth, human flourishing, durability and a change for the better. Agonistic sport and environmental sensitivity: the twain shall not only meet but merge into a strenuous consequential truth.

Prompted by Sigmund Loland’s ecosophy of sport and Peter Sloterdijk’s analysis of human beings as upward tending training animals, as well as by insights from historical phenomenology (or ‘metabletics’), hermeneutics, interpretivism and pragmatism, I have argued for a vertically challenged life, preferably to be played out on two unmotorized wheels. Following this plea for cultivating stamina, I ended the previous chapter with an ode to the strenuous mood of the lonely endurance athlete, ahead of the pack, tired but satisfied, and potentially on the brink of the good and flourishing life.Now it is time to return to the overall objective of this study. How can endurance sport at large, and cycling in particular, despite their challenging nature, contribute not only to self-knowledge, but also to self-improvement and sustainability? How to step over from individual metanoia to a collectively (re)introduction of good ecosophical habits? This chapter provides a closer analysis of endurance sport as a preferential contemporary manifestation of askēsis, or training. Once again, but now empirically more fortified, I argue that practiced at your own pace and understood as a process of gradual self-improvement, rather than winning over opponents per se, endurance sport can overcome the stalemate between exclusionary competitive sport and striving for a more inclusionary sustainability. Experiencing and overcoming agony will turn out to be a necessity for the radical change of lifestyle we need.I will concretise and materialise my ecosophical-ascetological stakes and claims by zooming in on specific cases of high suffering in endurance sport. This practical philosophical descent in the pain-cave will result in an illuminating vista on the wider ascetological-ecosophical implications of long distance endurance sport. Agonistic sport and environmental sensitivity, the twain shall meet and merge into a consequential truth that takes a serious effort.

Sigmund Loland ends his Outline of an Ecosophy of Sport (1996), advanced in the previous chapter, by proposing three pivotal questions that have to be taken into account when it comes to the sport-ecosophical litmus-test. 1. What are the implications of the norm on ecosophical joy in my specific sport practice? 2. How should I, in my sport context, relate to norms for developing skills in width and depth, for playing to win and for applying only ecosophically sound sport technology? 3. What can be done to promote sport training and competition in closeness to nature? As a practical philosopher and as a philosophical practitioner, I now will try to give provisional answers to these pivotal questions. I will do so from the perspective of (outdoor) endurance sports. To focus my thoughts, I will concentrate on running and particularly cycling, paved and unpaved, from elite athletes to dedicated age-groupers and joggers and weekend warriors.Endurance sports do not fare well in celebrating the multitude of motor and physical skills that Loland seems to presuppose. They are about diligence, repetition and sticking to a program in order to be able to cover a certain distance or to complete a race. Fostering endurance is a continuum of work in diverse physical states, rather than practicing for a few moments of exhilarating joy. Also Loland acknowledges the benefits of a dedicated training regimen. Longer periods of hard and monotonous work can to some extent be ecosophically justified, Loland reasons, but just as an instrumental means to an end: “Work is acceptable as a means to increased joy and perfection” (p. 80).Although they may seem fairly dull and repetitive indeed, sports that take a substantial effort are increasingly popular with the sedentary, urban and over-stimulated masses in the search for counterbalance, though. A certain physical constitution obviously is advantageous when it comes to endurance sports. Next to possessing basic health, a somewhat slim body may be helpful as a point of departure for fresh(wo)men in running and cycling. However, perseverance and stamina are far more important when it comes to cultivating staying power—and these ascetic virtues are within reach for most of us. Therefore endurance sports can more easily effect a change for the better than skill and agility demanding elite sports.Because of this high potential for change, I now (in the tough spirit of endurance sport) will try to answer the three key questions Loland proposes as a guideline for ecosophically good sport. To strengthen my critical assessment of Loland’s sport-ecosophical blueprint, Peter Sloterdijk’s plea for a radical change of our lifestyle by means of a well-understood ‘ascetology’ will be put in position. If properly performed, this general training theory will result in metanoia, a radical personal change of an unsustainable life-style, or at the collective level even in a ‘renaissance’ of durable virtues.

In recent years there has been much attention for environmental matters in actual sport practices, ranging from greening the Olympics to reducing the ecological footprint of mass running events. In itself these adaptive developments are praiseworthy. At the same time they raise philosophical discomfort, because they do not fully address the issue of how to mitigate the effects of our over-consuming and polluting life-style in a more profound way.This Chapter provides a rendition of a still tender and tentative philosophical and ethical debate by iteratively attempting to bridge the gap between ‘shallow’ adaptive green sport practices and ‘deep’ eco-philosophical thinking. It does so with a special focus on Sigmund Loland’s work on the ‘ecosophy’ (a portmanteau of ecology and philosophy) of sport. Notwithstanding the problematic relation between excluding and ‘agonistic’ competition on the razor’s edge and including and peaceful ‘ecological naturalism’, based on the work of Arne Naess, Loland develops a set of hypotheses and norms that gives philosophical evidence for the idea that sport can be ecologically justified. Key terms in this interactive system of fundamental normative questions and answers are ‘Self-realization!’ through engaging in sporting activities on the one hand, and the idea of ‘biospheric egalitarianism’ and ‘the democracy of all life forms’, on the other. Or: how to find the right mean between the pleasure of sporting in nature and sustainability?After analysing and criticising Loland’s sensitive Outline of an Ecosophy of Sport (1996), I will critically access two consecutive ‘sport-ecosophical’ articles by Loland: Record Sports: An Ecological Critique and a Reconstruction (2001) and Olympic Sport and the Ideal of Sustainable Development (2006). Whereas Loland concentrates on developing a robust sport-ecosophical mindset and leaving the idea of sport records, since these represent the logic of unlimited growth in limited systems, I rather suggest perhaps ‘shallow’ but nevertheless concrete acts that actually result in a change for the ecosophical better.

After pondering over the practical feasability of this ‘idealistic’ study in sustainable endurance and positioning it in the current philosophy of sport, I will reflect on a life virtuously lived in endurance, especially of the cycling kind. Starting off with challenging gravity and the first glorious unaided pedal strokes in the parental backyard. The first time with no hands. Followed up by widening circles: conquering villages, boroughs, provinces, countries, continents. And then in retrograde order back to the home base again, cultivating the garden, in search of destiny and origin by means of oriented repetition. On city bikes, racing bikes, time trail machines, mountain bikes and trekking bikes. Paved and unpaved. Alone or in a small group. Commuting, travelling, racing, climbing, gasping. Or just riding. Trying to find an own pace, and understanding that the good ascetic life comes with un-motorized reflexive-reflective moving around. To bring the motto of The Rider to memory: “Non-racers. The emptiness of those lives shocks me” (Krabbé T, The rider. Bloomsbury, London, 1978/2016, p. 1).

Philosophy is often epitomized as the noble art of asking the right questions. In this chapter I will also try to formulate a sport philosophical answer to the question how we are to live in times of environmental crisis and moral desorientation. I will do so by broadening the practical philosophical perspective I developed so far. Firmly rooted in continental philosophy, over time I have increasingly become infected by William James’s pragmatist adage that truth can only be found in the practical consequences of philosophical thinking. Integrating the pragmatic stance into my continental approach, I now will argue in favour of a life fully lived in strenuous endurance sport, for I regard both traditions as complementary rather than exclusionary. Endurance sport, conceived as a committed and holistic lifestyle, rather than as a gratuitous playful pastime, is a preferential tool for carving out the good life we are to lead, and which leads into a sustainable future.As will have become clear in previous chapters, for my continentally inspired view on the benefits of human endurance in general I am indebted both to Sigmund Loland’s ecosophical work and to Peter Sloterdijk’s kynical thoughts on how to change our lives through asceticism. In You must Change your Life, Sloterdijk regularly hints at possible directions for improving our lives. We should become more environmentally conscious, less susceptible for the temptations of hyper-consumptive modern life—“banalised Enlightenment”, in Sloterdijk’s wording —, willing to put in more effort when it comes to satisfying our vertical needs, becoming more resilient, mentally as well as physically. Still, there remain quite a few loose ends when it comes to concretely stepping over from theoretical ascetology to ascetic action. The tenacious question still is: how to concretize and materialise ecosophical-ascetological initiatives?My aim in this chapter is to further develop Sloterdijk’s provocative, agonistic style in a pragmatist manner: how to change our lives for the better through properly practiced endurance sport, particularly of the cycling kind?

The previous chapter, which dealt with sport and the environment, implicitly ended with a quasi-Sisyphean take on endurance sport. He or she who takes up the challenge will eventually be able to control the mountains of life. According to the subsequent ascetic imperative we must immerse ourselves in diligent practice, create our personal upwardly oriented challenge and cycle for life. It is living in the strenuous and auto-competitive, but meanwhile also ecologically respectful mood that makes life worthwhile.However, this emphasis on dedicated and necessary, but highly repetitive training-practices over the idea of sport as a playful voluntary attempt to overcome unnecessary obstacles (Suits, The grasshopper: games, life and utopia. Broadview Press, Ontario, 1978/2005), bears the risk of reducing sport to mechanic, soulless, un-reflective and un-critical activity. In this pejorative sense, then, sportive physicality becomes nothing but a matter of what Plato referred to as poson: calculative, quantitative measurability. Whilst the poionistic, qualitatively oriented quest for finding one’s own subjective measure, ideally resulting in a harmonious and holistic sense of well-being is neglected.To clarify and overcome the tension between quantity and quality, between dull calculable reps and rich, fully flourishing and meaningful life, in this chapter I will bring a specific brand of phenomenology to the fore: Jan-Hendrik van den Berg’s metabletica. This doctrine of change, (Metaballein means ‘to change’ in ancient Greek) or ‘historical phenomenology’ is a rather daring attempt to unveil causality between at a glance unrelated events in a specific period. I will explain and apply Van den Berg’s disputed, but evocative method by paying a metabletical visit to two remarkable years, namely 1974 and 2010, which I will respectively assess as years of poion (quality) and poson (quantity). In terms of sport, 1974 appears to be a year of quality, of fully being-in-the-world. On the other hand, metabletically speaking, 2010 turns out to be a year of fixation on quantity, a one-dimensional ‘calculative’ understanding of the perfection of the self. At the end of the concerning paragraph I will critically assess this supposed watershed between the good and the bad take on sport.Finally I will attempt to overcome Van den Berg’s all in all unfruitful dichotomy of the ‘reflexive spineless mass’ versus the ‘reflective critical individual’ by arguing that his musings on automated, reflexive movement behaviour on closer inspection even have special benefits to offer when it comes to an ecosophical-ascetological understanding of sport. Only when every single step does not demand full attention anymore, one can look around and enjoy the magnificent scenery of life. Only after diligently putting in ascetic effort, one can attain the Elysian fields of ecosophical joy. Experiencing overwhelming poion always presupposes a robust amount of poson.

After discussing the environmental effects of sport practices and putting a metabletic view on sport to the test, I now will turn to philosophy of sport as an academic discipline. Like other branches of applied philosophy, such as animal ethics and environmental philosophy, it started off in the early seventies of the previous century. Currently, it seems locked in a binary view. On the one hand narrow internalists, or formalists, argue that sports are uniquely constituted by their rules. This point of view can be referred to as the autotelic stance. Herein sport is considered an end in itself, constitued by rules and (eventually) shared conventions on how to play or race well. Broad internalists, or interpretivists, on the other hand, contend that sport is more than just a gratuitous and playful end in itself. In this line of reasoning sport also can be a means toward other ends: national pride, prize money, a ruthless quest for records, challenging the existing order or advancing international peace. This is the heterotelic view.In this chapter I will revitalise the reflection on sport as a dimension of the human condition by attempting to move beyond the binary opposition of internalism and externalism. I will do so by focussing on the potentially positive aspects of the concept of agon, a term which denotes struggle or contest. As an ‘agonal’ or competitive social practice, sport turns out to be a means to an end, in the sense that it surpasses the concept of sport as self-referential play: seeking knowledge, understanding the human condition, and cultivating virtue. I argue that this agonistic heterotelic view seems the better option.In order to strengthen my claims I will uptake, broaden and deepen Peter Sloterdijk’s ascetology already introduced in previous chapters. The bottom line of his call for a change for the better is that we have to become aware of the fact that our ‘ascetic planet’ is inhabited by individuals who are constantly and relentlessly training themselves. This may be self-focused, but it may also have a broader scope: we train ourselves to become better humans, contributing to a just and sustainable society. Paradoxically, however, this will only work when we become aware of our exercises as forms of life that engage the whole practicing person.A broad internal hermeneutic interpretation and furthering of endurance sport, especially cycling, can enrich our understanding of this sports activity as a form of asceticism. By following and furthering this ascetological imperative we can elaborate a view on cycling as an upwardly oriented ‘spiral’ that can contribute not only to self-knowledge and self-improvement on the individual level (metanoia), but also to an ‘ecosophical renaissance’ on the collective level.

This book provides new perspectives on endurance sport and how it contributes to a good and sustainable life in times of climate change, ecological disruption and inconvenient truths. It builds on a continental philosophical tradition, i.e. the philosophy of among others Peter Sloterdijk, but also on “ecosophy” and American pragmatism to explore the idea of sport as a voluntary attempt to overcome unnecessary obstacles. Since ancient times, human beings have been involved in practices of the Self in order to work on themselves and improve themselves, for instance by strengthening their physical condition and performance through sport. In the contemporary world, millions of individuals engage in endurance sports such as running, swimming and cycling, to get or keep themselves in shape. This study focuses on the ethical dimension of long-distance sport, notably cycling, as a way to become better citizens, but also to contribute to a more sustainable society and healthier planet. Dominant world-views are challenged and an alternative vision is presented. Discourse analysis and conceptual analysis are combined with phenomenology and self-observations of a dedicated practitioner of endurance sport. This book is a great source for philosophers, sport philosophers, environmental philosophers, sport scientists, policy makers, sport journalists, and endurance sport practitioners.

Sports reflection is rather locked into a binary view of narrow and broad internalists. Narrow internalists, or formalists, argue that sports are solely constituted by their rules: the ‘autotelic’ stance. Broad internalists, or interpretivists, on the other hand, reason that sport is more than just a lusory end in itself. This paper will revitalize reflection on sports as a locus of the human condition by breaking through this binary opposition. It will focus on the positive aspects of the concept of ‘agon’. As an ‘agonal’ or competitive social practice, sport may be a means to a ‘heterotelic’ end that surpasses the concept of sport as self-referential play: seeking knowledge, understanding the human condition and cultivating virtue. As such, self-improvement through repetitive practice has always been a key theme of human existence. Our ‘ascetic planet’ is inhabited by individuals who are constantly and relentlessly training themselves for the better. This may be self-focused, but it may also have a broader scope: we train ourselves to become better humans, contributing to a just and sustainable society. Paradoxically, however, this will only work when we become aware of our exercises as forms of life that engage the practising person. A hermeneutics of endurance cycling can enrich our understanding of this sports activity as a form of asceticism. As such, it will elaborate a view on cycling as an upwardly oriented ‘spiral’ that can contribute not only to self-knowledge and self-improvement on the individual level, but also to an ‘ecosophical renaissance’ on the collective level.