Samaneh Khalili

The Muʿtazilites were a group of Islamic theologians who believed in human free will and moral responsibility. However, they did not share the same opinion about how God relates to natural events or how humans generate their actions and resulting effects. This paper explores the theory of primary and secondary causes in the Bahšamīya branch of the Muʿtazilites of Baṣra. First, it discusses how these Muʿtazilites explain the process of becoming and passing away in the world without resorting to occasionalism. Second, it introduces the theory of tawallud, which holds that human actions are not determined by the laws of nature or God, but rather humans generate effects through secondary causes. Finally, it examines the arguments presented by ʿAbd al-Ǧabbār, as a Muʿtazilite from the Bahšamīya school, against the theory of divine habit (ʿādah) in volume IX of the book ‚al-Muġnī fī abwāb at-tawḥīd wa-l-ʿadl‘ and proposes his idea of secondary causality as a necessary connection between events in nature that can be traced back to God as the primary cause.

The Natural Law Doctrine of ʿAbd al-Ǧabbār. A Study of universal and rational norms of conduct in Mu'tazilite theology from the Perspective of the philosophy of religion The concept of natural law (lex naturalis) refers to norms of human coexistence that apply universally, transcending state codes, individual or group interests, as well as religious and ideological beliefs. In contrast to positive law, which is established by human authorities or institutions wielding power, these norms are attributed to the inherent nature and reason of human beings. Within this framework, this study delves into the doctrine of norms of action within the philosophical system of the Muʿtazilite theologian ʿAbd al-Ǧabbār (born between 932-937 CE, and passed away in 1024-25 CE) - the most influential thinker during the later phase of the Muʿtazila movement. The study seeks to elucidate the distinctive nature of his theory regarding the norms of action, emphasizing the delicate balance between the divine order and human reason, which grants freedom to humanity. This work addresses the inquiry of how ʿAbd al-Ǧabbār harmonizes the will of God, external nature, ethical values, human reason, and the inner nature of man in his writings. The aim of this study is to demonstrate that ʿAbd al-Ǧabbār's doctrine can be categorized within the domain of natural law theories. Moreover, it aims to establish that the foundation of fundamental human rights and duties in this theory is rooted in human reason. Consequently, this research illustrates how ʿAbd al-Ǧabbār's doctrine of objective and universal norms of action provides a framework for assessing judgments derived from the Šariʿa within the realm of human coexistence.