Shiyu Zhang

This article examines the cross-cultural diffusion of liberalism by looking into the political thoughts of the first Chinese liberal Yan Fu (1854–1921). By tracing the process of Yan’s reception and conception of liberalism at the turn of the twentieth century, I argue that liberalism could be upheld as both universally valid and culturally distinctive. As a Chinese intellectual, Yan was receptive to universal liberal ideas of individual liberty and constitutional democracy; meanwhile, his (trans)formation of liberalism is characterized by Chinese traditions. In Yan’s conception of liberty as a triadic conceptual framework of agents, restrictions, and ends, he stresses the significance of individuals as moral agents who are active in terms of pursuing moral ends, along with a strong focus on the ends, which potentially overwhelms the restrictions. The examination of Yan’s Chinese liberalism also serves as a poignant reminder of the dynamic nature of liberalism as an ideology, shaped by historical development and societal changes. It underscores the historical complexity and practical challenges encountered in translating liberal principles into practical implementations, a concern that remains relevant to this day.

The idea of a social contract has often been used as a means of informing moral reflection on the scope of our right or duty to resist injustice. Hannah Arendt—perhaps surprisingly—also draws upon this tradition in her analysis of civil disobedience in the United States of America. The contention of this chapter is that her republican recasting of this tradition cannot speak to the injustice of arbitrary exclusion from the original contract. The resistance of the excluded is not a backward-looking attempt to enforce the original terms of the agreement, but a forward-looking attempt to remake that agreement. The political action made possible by their association allows the excluded to demonstrate their ‘right to have rights’, calling for the recasting of the polity along more inclusive lines.