Simon Hayhoe

Two case studies of students from California School for the Blind studying artworks in museums and on the Web are discussed. The analysis focuses on the traditional understanding that unreachable artworks in the museum are deciphered by non-intellectual elites primarily from the perspective of visual perception and museums are simple vessels of art, as contended by Ernst Gombrich and Pierre Bourdieu, and that exclusion is either passive or active. It is also argued that there is a bridge between sensing an object and understanding it that is beyond perceptions. The article concludes that the two students featured in the case studies were more likely to be passively rather than actively excluded from unreachable and two-dimensional artworks, and that they could still develop a symbolic intellectual and emotional connection with these artworks and the museum through verbal descriptions and being in their presence

Three genres of photographs created by visually impaired people are discussed. The analysis focuses on the notion that two-dimensional art works can be understood more readily through experiential learning. The article concludes that whatever their level of vision, visually impaired people have shown their understanding of visual concepts through photography, and that sighted people can gain an understanding of the social and perceptual worlds of visual impaired people by reading their photographs

Three case studies of teachers at the Metropolitan Museum of Art are discussed in the context of a larger grounded theory parent study of blind and visually impaired visitors, teachers and systems of instruction. The fieldwork focused on verbal imaging techniques to describe unreachable artworks. The analysis focuses on the traditional understanding that artworks in the museum are deciphered primarily from the perspective of visual perception, that museums are simple vessels of art, as contended by Ernst Gombrich and Pierre Bourdieu, and that inclusion is active. The enquiry also examines whether there is a bridge between sensing an object and understanding it that is partially beyond perception. The article has three conclusions. The first is that the three teachers devised methods to passively rather than actively include students in their descriptions of unreachable artworks, by discussing and developing bespoke modes of communication which were tailored to the viewer’s background and impairment. The second is that visitors often develop symbolic, intellectual and emotional connections with artworks and the museum through verbal descriptions and being in their presence. The third is that previous literature has focused too heavily on the understanding that active inclusion in the museum is premised primarily on touch

We are delighted to welcome Simon Hayhoe as the guest editor for this Special Issue on Disability, Christianity and Education. Simon is Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Education at Canterbury Christ Church University, UK and is a distinguished scholar in this field, having undertaken extensive research in arts education of both blind adults and school children and published widely in disability and education. He is also a Research Associate in the Centre for the Philosophy of Natural and Social Science at the London School of Economics, where he is researching the epistemology of disability and ability, with special reference to education, inclusion, technology and the arts. Simon has also worked as a research officer at Birkbeck College and the Institute of Education, both in the University of London, and at the University of Toronto. In his editorial Simon reflects on the significance of the work of Professor John Hull, who is a giant amongst academics working in the theology of disability. John was my main supervisor for my doctoral studies when I was working on developing an evangelical theology of religious education for British schools. He was a remarkable tutor with whom I enjoyed the most stimulating debates. I disagreed with his basic position and critiqued that in my thesis, but was heavily influenced by his ideas and the challenges he presented me with. His book, What Prevents Christian Adults from Learning? first published in 1985, is still, in my opinion, one of the most important books that I have read on Christian learning. However, as Simon too acknowledges, it was John’s personal qualities that had the most impact. I started as his doctoral student not long after he finally lost his sight in 1983 in the middle years of a distinguished academic career. Such a happening would cause many to give up. Not John. Up to the moment of his death in the early hours of 28th July 2015, he was still producing ground-breaking work. It is fitting that this special issue is dedicated to him. --Trevor Cooling

This paper proposes a model of inclusive technical capital, and its use in the evaluation of technology and education designed to include students with disabilities. This paper also examines the role of mainstream mobile technologies and m-learning in the inclusion of students with disabilities. A recent research project on the inclusivity of native settings and apps on Apple’s iOS and Google’s Android mobile operating systems is reviewed, and a model of evaluation is proposed as a starting point for future evaluations. The paper concludes that mobile technology has advantages over traditional assistive technologies as a tool of inclusive technical capital. However, more needs to be done to develop tablets and smartphones’ native settings and apps to include students with disabilities. It is also found that mobile devices as a whole need to become cheaper in order to make them more socially inclusive

This article presents a grounded theory investigation into the academic, social and cultural roots of the theory of play for cognitive and emotional development of blind and visually impaired children. Data is analysed through an epistemological model of disability, and through a notion of passive and active exclusion from cultural activities through institutional policy and practice. In common with the findings of a previous study on the development of theory and practice in art and museum education, it is argued that theories on the use of touch over other forms of perception were developed with negative consequences, and that theories were overly influenced by a form of reductionist philosophy of enlightenment from the 17th and 18th centuries. Furthermore, it is also argued that such philosophical and pedagogical theories were influenced by the cultural and religious predisposition of their authors. The pedagogical approaches that developed from the enlightenment philosophies, it is additionally argued, have done little to develop a full range of perceptual experiences during play, including visual stimuli of colour and tone, something that is particularly important for children with impaired vision. The study has two main conclusions. The first conclusion is that, in common with art and other forms of creative activity in education, access to multi-modal forms of play that encompass and utilize all of the senses in concert should be favoured for blind and visually impaired children – as indeed it should be for all children – and that the individual needs of the blind and visually impaired child should be considered when designing the environment and toys they use for play. The second conclusion is that research on creativity and play for children who are blind and visually impaired needs to be less influenced by the background of the author and reductionist philosophies, and instead should emphasise the individual physical, social and cultural needs of the blind and visually impaired child

Attitudes toward disability and disabled people by Muslims—focusing on attitudes in the Middle East and North Africa—and Christians—focusing on the West (here taken to mean Europe and the Americas)—were examined through a grounded theory literature search, with the study being divided into three phases of reading and analysis. The aims of study were to develop a dialogue on disability between the two faiths, to inform an understanding of the attitudes to disability, and to inform the social practice of promoting support and equality. The study finds that Islam and Christianity have much in common and are a force for good in promoting and developing disability equality by both Muslims and Christians

What can a visually impaired student achieve in art education? Can visually impaired students teach sighted students about elements of perception that sighted students would not normally consider? Are the legal moves towards rights to equal access for visually impaired people useful in asserting that visually impaired students can gain as much from gallery exhibits as sighted students can? In this article, these questions are studied in a practice report of a course involving visually impaired and sighted students working in groups, studying in a museum and creating art work at schools for the blind (i.e. schools maintained for visually impaired and blind students). The study found that by arguing that sighted and visually impaired students can learn about each-others’ perceptual similarities and potentials by working together, and that art is a particularly effective medium for developing this understanding. Furthermore, it is observed that the visually impaired students discussed in this article had as much potential to develop art works as their sighted counterparts

Over the past forty years, many industrialised countries have changed their epistemological focus of impairment and disability from that of a biological abnormality treated by therapies and separate education, to one of a problem of exclusion and social well-being, ameliorated through anti-discriminatory institutional policies, laws and inclusive environments. Since the 1980s, this has also been reflected internationally in the definitions and statements of the World Health Organisation (WHO) and more latterly the United Nations (UN). Although many museums produced touch exhibitions for blind people from the early decades of the 20th Century, since the shift to laws and definitions championing social and cultural inclusion such exhibitions have become significantly more widespread. Arguably, however, many of these exhibitions have been tokenistic and have largely assumed that blind people only need to feel exhibits – a product of philosophical writing undertaken in the 17th and 18th Centuries by the likes of Locke, Diderot and “Demodocus”. This restricts the engagement of blind and visually impaired people to a small number of art works that are allowed to be touched during separate tours, or to an even more limited number of art works which are available to the public on a permanent basis. This, it has been argued, has restricted the participation of blind people in the cultural life of communities, and has had an impact on their well-being, as many blind people regard museums, similar cultural institutions and art itself as being beyond their understanding. Having researched the concept of blind people’s understanding of visual culture in previous studies on the art education of blind people and the practice of blind computer programmers, my Fulbright research addressed questions relating to blind people who visited museums as normal members of the public – i.e. not part of separate tours - or to have pieces verbally described to them on bespoke tours. In particular, I initially addressed the understanding of untouchable art works – particularly paintings – at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. However, during the study the research expanded to address the experiences of museums by blind people in general, including students from two schools for the blind – Perkins (Massachusetts) and California School for the Blind - and addressed the question: Why do people need to visit museums to view and experience works of art when they can now see them reproduced in books or on posters or on the Web? This addressed a much larger understanding of visiting museums, and inclusion in relation to cultural well-being

The Disabled Students Allowance is a government grant for students aged 18 years and over in English Higher Education. Amongst other things, this grant supports the provision of traditional assistive technologies. In April 2014, the UK’s Minister for Universities, Science and Cities proposed cuts to the DSA. Although a later announcement delayed these cuts until the academic year 2016−2017, a number of universities are already preparing alternative means to support disabled students. In this article, it is argued that cuts to the DSA will potentially reduce the cultural and technical capitals of students with disabilities and lessen social inclusion in Higher Education. In particular, less support will potentially lead to a reduction in the development of study skills. As a counter weight, this article proposes a new model of inclusive technical capital. This model originates in Bourdieu’s theory of cultural capital and habitus. The proposed model supports the use of native apps and settings in ubiquitous mainstream mobile technologies. It also espouses the use of m-learning for the passive inclusion of students with disabilities. This article also presents the early results of a project on the use of mobile technologies at the London School of Economics and Canterbury Christ Church University. This project found that students with disabilities and their lecturers already used mobile technologies alongside or instead of customized traditional assistive technologies. The project also found that students preferred not to attend, or found it difficult to attend, separate study skills courses using mobile technologies. However, they were more likely to access m-learning tutorial materials on Learning Management Systems. The study concludes that mobile technologies have the potential to develop a number of study skills that are at risk after cuts to the DSA. However, their use in this regard needs further research and support from universities

This article describes an investigation into the potential of mobile operating systems and native apps to transform educational inclusion for disabled students. It is framed by a philosophy of inclusive technology, which theorises that contemporary technologies, such as the World Wide Web, netbooks, tablets and smartphones, could possibly increase the social inclusion of people with disabilities, as these technologies are more portable, provide greater social access to institutional environments and communities, are more socially acceptable and allow greater social communication than traditional assistive technologies. By drawing reference to this philosophy, the article evaluates the accessible software available in Google’s Android and Apple’s iOS operating systems for tablets and smart phones. These systems were chosen as previous literature observes that they offer provision for students with disabilities, and their manufacturers have claimed that they are amongst the most accessible technologies on the market. Two instruments are used to evaluate these devices: A sociological model of technical capital: This model is based on Bourdieu’s theory of social capital, and is premised on the notion that access to technology, either through financial, geographical, intellectual or physical means, increases life chances and access to financial capital, social equality and access to higher levels of education; The SAMR Model of Educational Technology: This model is premised on the theory that educational applications of technology are premised on the transformation or enhancement of traditional pedagogies, either through the substitution, augmentation, modification or redefinition of educational tasks. The evaluation of these mobile operating systems concentrates on their use in three staple study skills: The making and sharing notes in written, audio and video formats; The organisation of information in the form of text based, audio and video files; The recording of still images, audio and video files. The evaluation finds that both operating systems have similarly effective accessible settings in terms of their ability to enlarge text, reverse colours and save and change the quality of audio and video files. However, it is found that Android has better native facilities for audio recording, organizing and sharing files, and Apple iOS has an advantage in terms of its ability to photograph in photo-negative and create time lapse recordings. However, there are issues with both operating systems in terms of pricing, potential ease of use, and cultural diversity. The evaluation concludes that these mobile operating systems have the potential to be used for tasks discussed in the SAMR model, but both systems still need to improve a number of features in order to make their potential technical capital more socially accessible

This paper presents a case study of the use of the iPad 2 by a blind student at Sharjah Women’s College, Higher College of Technology. Emma was finding it difficult to read, write, understand normal graphics, use her computer without a great deal of assistance and use the complex equipment that she needed to be familiar with in her classes in order to work through her assessments. In addition, her increased workload at college was creating physical stress, with the strain on her eyes leaving her increasingly tired when conducting normal exercises, and mentally stressed, with the extra work she had to conduct to compensate for her blindness. As a result, I was asked to work with Emma and recommend assistive technologies, literature and graphics, and help with technical language tuition. As a primary tool of assistance, I recommended using the iPad 2, as it appeared to have a broad range of available literature, and included accessible software to enlarge text, change the color of the interface and provide a synthesized voice

This chapter presents results of a grounded theory literature search on sustainability of the disabled population in countries of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC), which are composed of the countries surrounding the southern coast of the Persian Gulf and Oman. Research focused on the adaptability of the GCC’s Arabic culture to accommodate a growing number of disabled people in its population, the potential areas of an increase or a decrease in its disabled population, and the advantages and potential problems in the societies of the GCC’s constituent countries

This article presents a grounded methodology literature review on the use of mobile devices by people with disabilities. In this article, inclusion in technology is defined and discussed. It is found that little literature is available on the inclusive use of mobile devices in the GCC, even though these technologies are in widespread use in this region. There is however a growing body of literature from Western countries on the use of mobile devices with disabled students; this shows a cultural bias towards the West for the development of theory. The study concludes that more cultural context is needed in researching mobile technologies with disabled students

In this article, Assistive Technologies (AT) currently used at the Higher College of Technology (HCT) are discussed in the context of supporting students with special needs. A number of learning difficulties and physical disabilities are reviewed and possible technological solutions are identified, with examples of their functions described. In the course of the discussion, learning strategies are also discussed as a result of the introduction of AT. Together, these findings suggest that there is sufficient scope for students with special needs to be successfully included in a significant majority of educational tasks if teachers and students are open to the flexibility that is necessary for the introduction of different technologies

In 1999, I embarked on a part-time Ph.D. study to examine the effects of early art education on cultural development in English schools for the blind. This study formed part of a larger grounded theory on the understanding and creation of what are thought to be the visual arts by blind adults and children. The main fieldwork for this study was conducted at RNIB New College, Worcester, and included participant observations, interviews and participant diaries. This article examines strategies involved in developing fieldwork as a full-time teacher in a different school, and focuses on the issues involved in collecting the participant diaries. The article also examines the development, creation and maintenance of relationships within fieldwork, and strategies of reflexive work patterns. In particular, the article examines the nature of the Intimate Journal and the use of Informers to develop part of a grounded theory.