Etaoghene Paul Polo

Genetic diseases are disorders mostly caused by abnormalities in an individual's deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), leading to the death of thousands of patients worldwide. With the advent of genetic human enhancement technologies like CRISPR (short for "clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats"), a profound solution to the genetic diseases affecting the world has emerged. However, it has raised complex ethical and religious concerns that require urgent attention. This study argues that ethical inclusivity seeks a balanced approach to ethical stances that respect both scientific progress and the sacred fabric of life. The study finds that genetic enhancement has led to the manipulation of the human genome, the sacredness of life and many other aspects are at stake. Drawing from religious worldviews, moral philosophy, and the objective of the study is to interrogate the tension using the native centric bioethical principle to analyse the desire to perfect human nature and the risks of undermining human dignity, justice, and the sanctity of life. The study concludes that while human enhancement holds utopian promises of disease eradication and cognitive advancement, it simultaneously raises critical questions about identity, inequality, and the meaning of being human.

Music occupies a significant position in African societies as a medium for preserving indigenous knowledge, transmitting cultural values, and promoting communal consciousness. Among the Urhobo people of Delta State, Nigeria, traditional musicians have historically served as social commentators and custodians of moral and cultural heritage. Despite the cultural importance of Urhobo music, limited scholarly attention has been given to the ethical teachings embedded in it. This study therefore examines the moral themes and ethical teachings in selected songs of Chief Daniel Iriferi [Sally Young] and Joseph Odjevwedje [Okpan Arhibo]. Adopting a qualitative textual and interpretative approach, the study analyses Ono Vwakpo and No Basket for Rotten Mango as Urhobo cultural music containing reflections on human existence, social responsibility, marriage, and moral conduct. The findings reveal that the selected songs function beyond entertainment by serving as instruments of ethical instruction and social commentary. While Sally Young's Ono Vwakpo reflects on the transient nature of life and encourages meaningful living, Okpan Arhibo's No Basket for Rotten Mango emphasises the sanctity of marriage, responsible relationships, and adherence to communal moral expectations. The study further demonstrates that through metaphor, indigenous language, and cultural symbolism, both musicians preserve and transmit important ethical values. The study concludes that Urhobo traditional music represents a valuable repository of indigenous moral philosophy and communal knowledge. It recommends sustained documentation and scholarly engagement with indigenous music as important resources for preserving African cultural and ethical traditions.

Technology currently dominates and permeates virtually every aspect of human life and endeavour. There is hardly anything today that is totally devoid of technological intervention. Given its unceasing progression, technology will certainly have enormous impact on humanity in the future. Unfortunately, humanity is greatly enamored by contemporary technology to the extent that very little or no attention is usually given to the numerous problems associated with it. In other words, humanity often approaches technology with an attitude of uncritical admiration. We celebrate its comforts and marvel at its possibilities, while giving far less attention to its numerous challenges, dangers, and unintended consequences. This unreflective, and at times reckless, embrace of technology poses grave risks for the wellbeing of humanity; it is capable of leading humanity to a catastrophic end. It is against this background that the present book emerges. This work argues that technology, like many human enterprises, possesses flipsides (advantages and disadvantages, benefits and burdens, promises and perils). Therefore, neither blind acceptance nor outright rejection of technology is an adequate response. What is required is a more thoughtful posture: a guided acceptance of technology. By this, I mean an attitude of prudent openness; one that embraces the genuine benefits of technological progress while refusing to ignore or trivialise its potential harms. The inspiration for this book is drawn from Martin Heidegger’s reflections on technology. In his work The Question Concerning Technology and other Essays, Heidegger warns that an unguided, unexamined surrender to technological thinking could sever humanity from its deeper relation to Being. He insists that modern technology is not merely a collection of tools but a mode of revealing; one that risks reducing the world, including human beings, to mere resources. Consequently, Heidegger undertook a questioning of technology in order to restore a more primary meaning that has been lost and forgotten in the current technological age. His call for a renewed questioning of technology serves as an important prompt for contemporary society. It also underscores the need for a vigilant, ethically sensitive relationship with technology. While this book emulates Heidegger’s critical posture toward technology, it departs from a purely ontological concern. Rather than focusing exclusively on the philosophical essence of technology, I examine the practical and ethical flipsides of contemporary technological systems, highlighting both their indispensable benefits and their sometimes-overlooked dangers. The goal is not to condemn technology but to call for mindfulness, moderation, and responsibility in its development and use. Ultimately, the concept of guided acceptance, which this book develops and defends, is anchored in ten recommendations proposed in the final chapter. These recommendations aim to help society harness the immense potentials of technology while avoiding the catastrophic outcomes that often arise from negligence or excessive dependence. It is my hope that this book will contribute to a more reflective, philosophically grounded, and ethically responsible technological culture, one that protects humanity while enabling progress.

As machine learning (ML) systems become increasingly embedded in areas such as healthcare, education, hiring, and criminal justice, concerns about fairness and bias have intensified. This paper explores what it means for an algorithm to be fair, focusing on the concept of justice and how it can guide the design and evaluation of ML systems. Drawing insights from social and political philosophy, particularly theories of distributive justice and equality of opportunity, the paper examines the strengths and limitations of common fairness metrics, such as demographic parity and equalised odds. These metrics, while useful, are normatively incomplete, as they presuppose contested moral assumptions and cannot, on their own, determine what justice requires in algorithmic decision-making. The paper argues for a deeper understanding of fairness that goes beyond technical solutions; one that considers the ethical, social, and systemic dimensions of justice. By connecting the bioethical principle of justice to fairness in ML, the paper proposes a more comprehensive framework to better navigate the complexities of fairness-aware learning, while ensuring greater accountability and transparency in AI systems. The aim is to bridge the gap between technical approaches to fairness and their real-world impacts, encouraging interdisciplinary collaboration to shape more equitable and responsible AI technologies. The paper therefore defends the claim that algorithmic fairness must be explicitly grounded in substantive theories of justice if it is to address real-world algorithmic harms in ethically defensible ways.

The Doctrine of Signatures, an ancient philosophical and medicinal concept, posits that natural forms, colours, and patterns serve as indicators of purpose and function within nature. It reflects a worldview in which nature communicates moral and therapeutic meaning through visible “signatures.” This paper reinterprets this doctrine within the context of modern plant biotechnology, where the language of life has shifted from visible forms to genetic codes. It examines how contemporary scientific manipulation of plant genomes represents both an extension and a disruption of humanity’s interpretive relationship with nature. The study adopts a qualitative philosophical and bioethical method that combines conceptual analysis, historical interpretation, and ethical evaluation. Classical philosophical texts, particularly those of Paracelsus and Jakob Böhme, are examined alongside contemporary bioethical theories and scientific literature on plant biotechnology. This interdisciplinary approach allows for a critical and reflective assessment of the transformation of nature’s meaning in the age of genetic engineering. The findings reveal that the transition from “signatures” to “genes” has fundamentally redefined humanity’s engagement with nature, shifting it from interpretation to intervention. While the Doctrine of Signatures emphasised reading nature’s moral intelligibility, modern biotechnology emphasises rewriting its structure for human purposes. This shift challenges traditional ideas about moral limits, stewardship, and respect for life’s intrinsic meaning. However, it also opens new possibilities for rethinking ethical responsibility in light of scientific advancement. The paper recommends the development of an interpretive bioethics framework that balances scientific innovation with moral reflection. Biotechnology should proceed with humility and ethical caution, recognising that genetic manipulation is not merely technical but also a moral engagement with life. Drawing from both classical philosophy and African communitarian ethics, the study argues that reviving symbolic insights about nature can help restore ethical sensitivity, ecological respect, and moral depth in contemporary biotechnological practice.

Nature-based solutions (NbS) are increasingly recognised as vital responses to climate change, yet many initiatives fail to consider the cultural and ethical contexts of affected communities. This article examines the intersection of bioethics, multiculturalism, and climate adaptation strategies, building upon Polo’s work (2025), which addressed the reconciliation of divergent cultural values for a shared ecological future. Using a qualitative methodology, the study engages in critical textual analysis of interdisciplinary literature in environmental ethics, indigenous ecological knowledge, and global climate frameworks. Case studies from Sub Saharan Africa and Latin America are also examined to understand how traditional ecological practices contribute to or challenge prevailing NbS models. Findings indicate that although NbS offer ecological benefits, they often lack cultural legitimacy where local values and knowledge systems are overlooked. The study proposes three key bioethical imperatives: cultural respect, participatory inclusion, and ecological justice, as essential to implementing effective and equitable nature-based interventions. A normative framework is presented to guide policymakers and practitioners in designing NbS that are ethically and culturally grounded. The paper concludes that integrating multicultural bioethical perspectives enhances the effectiveness, acceptance, and sustainability of climate interventions. It calls for a shift from top-down technocratic models to participatory approaches that recognise cultural diversity as a strength in the global response to climate change.

This chapter explores the implications of AI technologies used in decoding animal vocalisations, emotion recognition, behavioural prediction, and robotic interaction. Employing a qualitative, interdisciplinary methodology that draws on philosophical analysis, ethical theory, including animal ethics and AI ethics, and empirical case studies, the work critically examines the impact of AI design choices on animal agency, consent, and welfare. Attention is also paid to broader societal issues, such as anthropomorphism, data bias, and the unequal effects of AI adoption in contexts like conservation and industrial farming. Furthermore, the chapter situates these interspecies technologies within the wider discourse on AI ethics, addressing concerns around fairness, transparency, accountability, data privacy, and digital inequality. It advocates for an ethics-by-design approach and participatory governance frameworks that incorporate the perspectives of ethicists, technologists, affected communities, and policymakers.

Advancements in biotechnology such as genetic engineering, cognitive enhancements, and neuroprosthetics unceasingly provoke global discussions on the future of humanity. In relation to these innovations, there exist two categories of thinkers whose views often shape ethical considerations. The first is the category of transhumanists, who completely endorse biotechnological breakthroughs, regarding them as essential measures for transcending the natural limitations of humans. The second category is that of African ethicists, who are committed to raising questions as to the moral implications of biotechnology-aided enhancements. Hinged on African communal values, particularly human integrity, human dignity, and social harmony, this paper seeks to explore the ethical limits of human enchantment. Precisely, the paper is aimed at determining whether the augmentation of human capabilities through biotechnology aligns with African moral values which stress balance, sacredness of human life, and relational personhood. Adopting a philosophical and qualitative methodology, as well as conceptual clarification, normative reasoning, analysis, and evaluation of relevant African philosophical texts, bioethical arguments, and transhumanist literature, the paper critically considers African communitarian ethics and enhancement-driven frameworks, with the aim of revealing the areas of convergence and tension. Themes such as moral status, identity, and socio-cultural implications of enhanced beings in African societies are given special attention. The ultimate argument of this paper is that while therapeutic applications of biotechnology may resonate with the African quest to restore human dignity and promote communal well-being, radical enhancements are at risk of distorting the moral fabric of African life. Aiming to contextualise global bioethical discourse by situating it in African traditions, the paper contributes to the growing body of literature. It concludes by proposing an ethically grounded framework for biotechnological innovation; one that does not disrespect African notions of personhood and collective flourishing.

This paper examines decolonisation as a foundational pathway to the emergence and development of African philosophy. It argues that decolonisation should not be conceived merely as the achievement of political independence, but rather as a comprehensive and ongoing process involving economic, cultural, psychological, and epistemic liberation. By clarifying the concepts of colonisation and decolonisation, the study situates African decolonisation within its historical context and critically analyses its rationale, causes, effects, and persistent challenges. Special attention is given to neocolonialism and internal colonialism as significant impediments to genuine African self-determination. Drawing on the works of Frantz Fanon, Kwame Nkrumah, Walter Rodney, Kwasi Wiredu, Paulin Hountondji, Henry Odera Oruka, John Mbiti, and other prominent scholars, the paper demonstrates that colonial domination extended beyond political and economic control to the sphere of knowledge production and philosophical expression. It contends that African philosophy can only develop authentically within a decolonised intellectual framework that affirms African rationality, conceptual autonomy, and lived cultural experience, while remaining open to critical intercultural engagement. The paper concludes that decolonisation is not a completed historical event but a continuing philosophical imperative essential for Africa’s intellectual freedom and meaningful participation in global philosophical discourse.

Epistemic identity is the way an agent, individual or a collection of individuals is (are) disposed towards knowing and holding beliefs about the nature of knowledge. What constitutes knowledge for an agent is determined by the epistemic paradigms that guide the agent’s acquisition and justification of what is real and what is not real. Researchers in African epistemology argue that there are indigenous ways of knowing, such as the testimony of elders, collective rationality, and sense experience. For them, these are genuine sources and justifications of knowledge, and they also form part and parcel of ‘African epistemic identity.’ They also argue that knowledge practice in Africa is grounded on African ontology, which explains the social and communitarian nature of African epistemology. To this end, this article explores the African epistemic identity, with particular attention on indigenous ways of knowing in African epistemology and collective agency. This article employs the expository, analytic, and dialectical methods to present an understanding of African epistemic identity through provision of useful insights on the social and communal character of African epistemology.

The climate crisis is a global concern, yet how societies respond are often shaped by their distinct cultural values, worldviews, and ethical traditions. This paper offers a bioethical exploration of the intersection between multiculturalism and climate change, examining how differing cultural perspectives influence environmental behaviour, policymaking, and collective action. While Western approaches to environmentalism frequently emphasise scientific and technological solutions, many indigenous and non-Western cultures uphold principles of spiritual, communal, and ecological interconnectedness. These differences present both a challenge to global cooperation and an opportunity to draw from a rich diversity of values in shaping a more inclusive and sustainable future. Grounded in African communal ethics, indigenous ecological wisdom, and global environmental movements, this paper argues for a pluralistic bioethical framework, one that treats cultural diversity not as an obstacle but as a vital resource for ethical engagement with ecological issues. It calls for intercultural dialogue that fosters mutual respect, shared responsibility, and environmental solidarity. Through the lens of eco-bioethics, the discussion advocates a shift from fragmented efforts to a more culturally sensitive and ethically grounded response to the climate emergency. In conclusion, the paper contributes to the broader discourse on environmental bioethics by proposing a collaborative, human-centred approach to sustainability, one that embraces both the richness of human cultures and the urgent need to care for our shared planet.

Although Africa is endowed with rich human and natural resources, it is arguably the poorest continent in the world. Blessed with a diversity of rich cultural heritage and tradition, it is bedeviled by a lost identity and existential integrity. This is not unconnected with its experiences of colonisation, slavery, racism, and western imperial domination, which displaced several established traditional structures in Africa. For instance, African cultures, customs, traditions, beliefs, world-views, values, languages, religions, lifestyles, political systems, and others, were distorted and subjugated. Western colonisers and imperialists justify their actions by claiming that Africa was a dark continent with nothing substantial to contribute to global development prior to their intervention, and arguing that Africans were illogical, and primitive, with infantile mentality. Contrary to this claim that is untrue, the distortion and subjugation of African cultures and ways by the West is largely responsible for the loss of its identity and existential integrity. To halt and reverse this situation, several African scholars, such as Leopold Sedar Sénghor and Julius Nyerere, have made efforts to rediscover the African heritage. This paper critically explores Sénghor’s Negritude and Nyerere’s Ujamaa (African socialism), with the aim of finding an intersection between them and drawing a roadmap towards the restoration of Africa’s identity and existential integrity. Both ideologies emphasise pride in African identity, communalism, and cultural uniqueness while rejecting the Eurocentric myth of African inferiority. Sénghor and Nyerere advocate for a return to Africa’s pre-colonial values, where communal solidarity, respect, and autonomy prevailed. This paper argues that the convergence of Negritude and Ujamaa provides a joint roadmap for restoring Africa’s sense of self, highlighting the importance of unity, equality, and cultural resurgence as essential elements for Africa’s development in the modern world.

Africa is a continent of paradoxes. The continent is richly blessed with abundant natural resources such as gold, diamond, oil, gas, bauxite, arable land, forests, wildlife, water, platinum, chromium, cobalt, etc. The continent also has abundant human potential and resources. Despite all these, the resources are poorly managed and this is one of the reasons why there is a high rate of japa (migration) out of the continent. Africa is massively underdeveloped. Despite political independence from the colonialists many decades ago, the land of Africa is inundated with injustices and inequalities. Through critical hermeneutics and analytic methods, this paper argues that there is a need to eradicate injustices and inequalities in Africa. The paper finds out that many factors are responsible for inequalities and injustices in the continent, such as bad and inept political leadership, corruption, colonialism, neocolonial influences, ethnicism, poor administration of criminal justice, etc. The paper concludes that if Africans mitigate injustices and inequalities, they will create a more just and egalitarian society.

This paper explores the issue of racial bias in artificial intelligence (AI) through the lens of the bioethical principle of justice, with a focus on Joy Buolamwini’s “Coded Bias” and the work of the “Algorithmic Justice League.” AI technologies, particularly facial recognition systems, have been shown to disproportionately misidentify individuals from marginalised racial groups, raising profound ethical concerns about fairness and equity. The bioethical principle of justice stresses the importance of equal treatment and the protection of vulnerable populations. Through qualitative research, including content analysis of Buolamwini’s works and case studies of AI bias, this paper assesses the efforts of the Algorithmic Justice League to combat racial bias in AI. It emphasises their advocacy for the development of fair, equitable algorithms and calls for systemic reform in AI development to ensure justice for marginalised communities.

This paper explores the concept of utilitarianism in relation to suicide, drawing insights from Freudian psychoanalytic theory and Durkheimian sociology, while presenting a Christian ethical response. Freud’s theory of the death drive (Thanatos) and Durkheim’s classifications of suicide suggest that individuals may seek relief or perceived pleasure in ending their lives, which could align with a utilitarian calculus of maximising pleasure and minimising pain. However, this paper argues that such a perspective fails to account for the broader pain caused to family, friends, and society, thus presenting a moral dilemma within the utilitarian framework. Christian ethics, rooted in the sanctity of human life, categorically rejects suicide as a violation of divine law and the inherent dignity of human existence. The paper employs a qualitative methodology, utilising a critical analysis of existing literature on Freud and Durkheim’s theories of suicide, alongside theological texts on Christian moral theology. Through this interdisciplinary approach, the work contrasts the utilitarian implications of suicide with the Christian ethical stance, ultimately concluding that Christian ethics offers a more holistic response, emphasising the moral obligation to preserve life.

The advent of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and other digital technologies is touted as ushering in the fourth industrial revolution (4IR). 4IR, also known as ‘Industry 4.0,’ pertains to the burning internet connectivity, sophisticated analytics and production, and automation’s transformative impacts on the world. The surge of change in the production arena started in the second half of 2010 and has continued to increase astronomically, with a remarkable probability of shaping the future of manufacturing and humanity. The 4IR is thus heralding areas such as digitalisation, artificial intelligence, cloud computing, robotics, and 3D technologies amidst many other innovative digital technologies following the first, second and third industrial revolutions. The problem this paper addresses is the role of Arts and humanities (A&H) in the era of AI. Should A&H imbibe the empirical science methodology to stay relevant? How does A&H contribute to 4IR? Leveraging on philosophical tools of arguments and reconstruction of ideas, this paper argues for the significance of Kant’s thoughts in The Contest of the Faculties and that Arts and humanities are instrumental to humanising science and technology, helping to shape interdisciplinary collaboration and fostering understanding of the ethical, social and cultural dimensions of AI.

This chapter attempts to establish an understanding of the concept of logic. Since there is no unanimous definition of logic, we shall consider some definitions which will facilitate our development of a working definition. This will be followed by a historical trajectory of logic as a discipline, and thereafter, an exposition of the scope and subject matter of logic, as well as the laws of thought shall be given. The aspects or divisions of logic shall also be examined here-in. This chapter shall also include an overview of arguments in logic. This will be done by means of some definitions which will facilitate an understanding of the concept of argument. Since arguments are constituted by sentences which are called propositions, a distinction shall be made between sentences in the ordinary sense and in the propositional sense. This will be followed by a quick glance at the components of arguments. Inference, a term which denotes the relationship between the components of arguments, namely, premises and conclusions, shall also be considered. Also to be discussed in this chapter are: types and kinds of arguments, some instantiations of arguments, truth-value of propositions, validity and invalidity of arguments as well as sound and unsound arguments. A briefing on the usefulness of arguments to man shall also be given in this chapter. The end-point of this chapter shall be a discourse on the relevance or value of logic as it applies to our daily living.

Blending the qualitative and analytic research methods, this article critically examines the nature and limitations of inductive arguments within the field of logic. Inductive arguments, unlike their deductive counterparts, provide conclusions that extend beyond the premises, thus offering probabilistic rather than certain conclusions. This critique emphasises the weak inferential connections inherent in inductive reasoning, where premises give only partial or probable support to conclusions. The analysis highlights the ampliative value of inductive arguments, illustrating how they broaden conceptual knowledge by introducing new information. However, the article also delves into reasons for their limited acceptance in logic, focusing on their probabilistic nature, contingency, experiential basis, and susceptibility to fallacies such as hasty generalisation, composition, false cause, and appeal to authority. Despite these criticisms, the article recognises that inductive arguments hold significant merit in scientific inquiry and everyday reasoning, contrasting with the firm, analytic nature of deductive arguments used in formal logic and philosophical analysis. The article concludes by advocating for a balanced approach in argumentation, underscoring the need to appreciate the contextual strengths and limitations of both inductive and deductive reasoning in the pursuit of effective logical analysis.

This study examines the epistemological implications of the adoption of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in researches within the information age. Focusing on the particular case of Margaret Lawrence University, a leading research institution situated in Galilee, Ika North-East Local Government Area of Delta State, Nigeria, this study assesses the implications of AI-aided research and questions the integrity of AI-generated knowledge. Precisely, this study discusses the epistemological status of AI-generated knowledge by weighing the prospects and shortcomings of using AI in research. Also, this study explores a number of ethical considerations associated with AI-aided research, such as potential bias, digital piracy, and the risk of misinterpretation of results. Collectively, the Findings of this study reveal that although AI has great potentials for advancing research, it has far-reaching implications for the integrity of research. This study concludes by recommending a number of measures which can be employed to foster responsible use of AI in research and ultimately ensure research integrity in Margaret Lawrence University and elsewhere.

So much value is ascribed to human life. This is so because life is generally regarded as a precious gift to humanity, which should be cherished and protected, as failure to cherish and protect life will bring about the inevitable extinction of the entire human race. Abortion is one of the numerous contemporary issues that undermine the sanctity and value of human life; for it involves terminating a pregnancy by removing a fetus or embryo before it can survive independent of the uterus, or killing the fetus inside the uterus. The issue of abortion is highly controversial; for while some individuals permit it, some others condemn it totally, as evident in the 'pro-life' versus 'pro-choice' controversy. 'Pro-life' advocates condemn abortion because it is an outright disrespect for the dignity and value of human life, and hold that there should be sustained discussions on it, to expose its danger and fatal consequences. 'Pro-choice' advocates are simply indifferent to the issue of abortion; for them, getting involved in abortion is a matter of choice for an individual - that is, one is at liberty to accept or reject abortion so that in the final analysis, abortion should not be an issue for discussion. This article explores several arguments and bioethical concerns on abortion, approaches to the issue of abortion, and Nigeria's abortion provisions, which are evident in the Criminal and Penal Codes, respectively. Ultimately, this article recommends that beyond merely stating punishments for those involved in abortion, the following should be done: (a) Correcting the disparity between the Criminal and Penal Codes by ensuring that both Codes have the same penalty stated, or completely reducing them into a single Code that will be applied across the country, (b) Modifying the Criminal and Penal Codes by including information that will serve the purpose of educating Nigerians on the bioethical issues associated with abortion, and (c) Designating a body charged with ensuring compliance with and implementation of the abortion laws.

The world today is marked by linguistic diversity. It has nonetheless been described as a global village. Consequently, there is a growing interest in understanding issues across cultures and languages. This has necessitated the translation of texts and thoughts into languages that can reach out to a greater number of people. The challenge, however, has been to retain the originally intended meaning in the new language into which a text is translated. The concern of this paper is to elucidate the concept of translation and the views of philosophers on the concept, with a view to understanding the problem of translation, especially as it relates to African Philosophy. Ultimately, this research establishes that the problem of translating African philosophical thought can be addressed through (a) improved capacity building of African translators, (b) better access to resources and increased collaboration between African and non-African scholars, and (c) use of a “third language” as a medium of communication, which can help bridge cultural and linguistic gaps between African and non-African philosophical thoughts.

Are human beings actually free beings? The doctrine of determinism gives a negative response to this question. Determinism therefore claims that humans are not free to act or make choices, since they are always constrained in some way. By so doing, determinism denies human freedom and human moral responsibility. It rejects the idea that humans act freely, or that humans can be regarded as responsible for their actions and inactions. This outright denial of human freedom and human moral responsibility is certainly pregnant with several implications, which this article is aimed at exposing. This article adopts the expository, analytic and critical methods. It begins with a clarification of the concept of determinism and then goes on to discuss five types of determinism, namely: (a) physical, (b) psychological, (c) historical, (d) ethical and (e) theological determinism, respectively. Also, this article discusses two categories of determinism known as soft and hard determinism. Furthermore, this article exposes some implications of determinism for events and humanity. Finally, adopting eclecticism as its theoretical framework, this article proposes that it is best to approach the doctrine of determinism by simply recognising and accepting the fact that there are aspects of humans that are determined, and there are equally aspects of humans that are not determined. By so doing, this article establishes that approaching the doctrine of determinism eclectically is the surest way of accommodating the opposing doctrines of determinism and 'freewillism.’

The problem of language in African philosophy is coextensive with the question as to whether there exists an African philosophy. This is so because when the question: "what language is African philosophy to be done?" arises, it implicitly calls into question the very foundation of the discipline. Little wonder then, that the language question has remained a front-burner issue in African philosophy. Essentially, the problem of Language in African philosophy raises the question as to whether the expression of the African experience of reality in foreign languages can generate an authentically African philosophy. Put differently, the problem centers on whether or not foreign languages should be used to express African philosophical thoughts. In an attempt to address this problem, two camps have surfaced among African philosophers, namely, the conservatives and the progressives. For the conservatives, for a philosophy to be authentically African, it must be expressed in African languages. They base their argument on the fact that language is tied to culture and every culture has its peculiar conceptual framework. Consequently, to express the African experience of reality in a foreign language necessarily implicates 'conceptual superimposition.' In contrast, the progressives commit themselves to a more pragmatic approach to the question of language. They opine that the lack of a continental lingua franca in Africa legitimizes the use of foreign languages. This research therefore evaluates the position of both camps with a view to establishing the possibility and plausibility of having an authentic African philosophy in foreign languages. This is without prejudice to the significance of African languages in construing the African experience of reality. This research employs the expository, analytic, and evaluative methods.

This paper offers a thorough appraisal of Peter David Klein's epistemological infinitism, emphasising his treatment of scepticism and the issue of infinite regress in epistemic justification. Klein, a prominent figure in contemporary epistemology, advocates for infinitism; a theory that argues justification is an unending process where each belief requires further reasons indefinitely. The study critically evaluates how Klein's defense of infinitism provides a distinctive response to the infinite regress problem, a core concern in scepticism. By contextualising Klein's theory within the broader framework of epistemology, the research explores its implications for ongoing debates on justification and scepticism. The methodology includes a thematic analysis of Klein's key philosophical contributions, coupled with a critical examination of competing justification theories such as foundationalism, coherentism, and contextualism. Employing a comparative approach, the study assesses Klein's infinitism alongside these rival theories by drawing on primary texts and relevant secondary literature. The paper is divided into five sections: an introduction to scepticism and epistemic justification, an analysis of Klein's infinite regress argument, an exploration of traditional solutions to the regress problem, criticisms of infinitism, and an appraisal of Klein's contributions. The findings reveal that, despite its innovative approach, Klein's infinitism encounters significant theoretical and practical challenges. The conclusion assesses whether infinitism can adequately address the regress problem and considers its relevance to real-world epistemic practices.

Primarily, this article emphasises that while conducting research, especially one involving human subjects, researchers are expected to comply with applicable global and national ethical standards. Should a researcher fail to do so, he/she stands the risk of breaching research ethics, and this is capable of rendering his/her research unacceptable. Accordingly, this article, making reference to relevant ethical theories, critically examines and analyses the actions of a researcher who set out to investigate treatment recommendations for diarrhoea. Ultimately, a number of ethical pitfalls in the stated research are x-rayed and some recommendations for subsequent studies are provided in this paper.